tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-88900101870107132832024-03-13T21:45:25.299+05:30Engineering Seminar Topics and ProjectAny intelligent fool can make things bigger and more complex... It takes a touch of genius - and a lot of courage to move in the opposite direction.Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.comBlogger22125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-6634450145976173692011-12-15T17:18:00.002+05:302011-12-15T17:18:51.733+05:30SIX SIGMA CONTROL IN TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><i>Abstract<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">six
sigma programs are raging through corporations worldwide, with some
corporations citing savings in the $US billions resulting from six sigma
implementation. Six sigma has both proponents and detractors with some arguing
that nothing new is involved and others identifying it as revolutionary. The
view espoused herein argues for six sigma as a methodology within the larger
framework of total quality management - a blend of old and new in the sense
that the tools of six sigma are often familiar ones, but are applied with an
eye that is more strategically focused than historic use of those tools
ordinarily indicates.</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: x-small;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
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<b>TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT:- (CONCEPT)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> TQM is a management strategy with a
customer focus, deploying suitable technique to eliminate waste. In all
activities of an organization and seeking continuous improvement. It is
management technique. It is a leadership philosophy with a customer focus. It
is a way of doing business & it is not just a programme. It is a management
strategy. Any strategy has a policy detailed by objectives, a method to meet
the objectives and where the method deploys different techniques and the
techniques supported by goals.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">*Continuous
improvement<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">*Continuous wide
programme<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">*Management as leader<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>OBJECTIVES OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT:-<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> 1. Meeting the customer requirement.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> 2. Continuous improvement of quality at
the every level at every state and at every p</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;">lace.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> 3. Participative problems solving
process.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> 4. Focused and continuous cost
reduction.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> 5. Interlink and integrate various
subsystem of the organization.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>TQM IMPLIMENTATION / PDCA:-<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">One
of the guru of the quality ‘WE Deming’ explained PDCA cycle (plan-Do-Check and
ACT) for implementation of TQM in any of the organization.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Plan:
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(1)
Lay down and plan policies and objectives of TQM.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(2)Plan method to achieve the objectives of
TQM.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">DO </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(3) Provide education and training to workers
and managers to</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"> Achieve Objectives.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(4)Implement
TQM by introduction never things.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;">CHECK: </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(5)
Check the result by observing them and find cause of the non</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;">Conformance</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(6) Analyze the results.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p>A</o:p></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;">CT: </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">(7)
try to act for the preventing undesired effects. (8) Measure the improvement
and design for future.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0yUDKBx7F0oOAOFnDxesFFI3yWsSaknGXnwSNPKXVEOGbQdXjmHTLU55EUIQmwgv6F_7GZlkRdlv0HvEFb5gdY1h2U6y-AeausnKXtQu-UmV3XG-PeW5LuyUiHug6pRII7zb6MsxnvEVU/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj0yUDKBx7F0oOAOFnDxesFFI3yWsSaknGXnwSNPKXVEOGbQdXjmHTLU55EUIQmwgv6F_7GZlkRdlv0HvEFb5gdY1h2U6y-AeausnKXtQu-UmV3XG-PeW5LuyUiHug6pRII7zb6MsxnvEVU/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">BLOCK DIAGRAM NO:- 1 (<st1:street w:st="on"><st1:address w:st="on">PDCA CIRCLE</st1:address></st1:street>)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>INTRODUCTION TO SIX SIGMA:-<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Six Sigma was pioneered
by Bill Smith at Motorola in the 1986 and popularized by General Electric (GE)
in the 1990’s. Bill Smith </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">did not really "invent" Six Sigma in the 1980s;
rather, he applied methodologies that had been available since the 1920s
developed by luminaries like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_A._Shewhart" title="Walter A. Shewhart"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Shewhart</span></a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._Edwards_Deming" title="W. Edwards Deming"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Deming</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_M._Juran" title="Joseph M. Juran"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Juran</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaoru_Ishikawa" title="Kaoru Ishikawa"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ishikawa</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiichi_Ohno" title="Taiichi Ohno"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Ohno</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shigeo_Shingo" title="Shigeo Shingo"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Shingo</span></a>,
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genichi_Taguchi" title="Genichi Taguchi"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Taguchi</span></a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shainin&action=edit" title="Shainin"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Shainin</span></a>.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Organizations
including Honeywell, Citigroup, Motorola, Starwood Hotels, DuPont, Dow
Chemical, American Standard, Kodak, Sony, IBM, Ford have implemented Six Sigma
programs across diverse business operations ranging from highly industrial or
high-tech manufacturing to service and financial operations . Although not yet
widespread in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Vietnam</st1:place></st1:country-region>,
several foreign invested manufacturing companies in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Vietnam</st1:place></st1:country-region> such as American Standard,
Ford, LG and Samsung in <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Vietnam</st1:place></st1:country-region>
have introduced Six Sigma programs. Jack Welch, the energetic chairman of GE,
has been Six Sigma's most influential advocate. Other companies, notably
Motorola and Allied Signal, have been incubators and proponents of the
movement. Mikel Harry is its most colorful champion. In 1891, British physicist
Lord Kelvin wrote, “When you can measure what you are speaking about, and
express it in numbers, you know something about it.” Mikel Harry, a noted Six
Sigma authority, extends the thought as, “we don't know what we don’t know; we
can’t act on what we don’t know; we won’t know until we search; we won’t search
for what we don’t question; we don’t question what we don’t measure.” Both
imply that if you failed to quantify the results of what you were doing, in a
way, it means that you might not understand what you were really doing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>What is Six Sigma:</b> -</div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> First, what it is not. It is
not a secret society, a slogan or a cliche. Six Sigma is a highly disciplined
process that helps us focus on developing and delivering near-perfect products
and services. Six Sigma is a statistically-based process improvement
methodology that aims to reduce defects to a rate of 3.4 defects per million
defect opportunities by identifying and eliminating causes of variation in
business processes. Six Sigma focuses on developing a very clear understanding
of customer requirements and is therefore very customer focused.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Why the name Six Sigma:</b> -</div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Why "Sigma"? The word
is a statistical term that measures how far a given process deviates from
perfection. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">The term "six sigma process" comes from the notion that if one
has six standard deviations between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean" title="Mean"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mean</span></a> of a process and the
nearest specification limit, he will make practically no items that exceed the
specifications.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> The central idea behind
Six Sigma is that if you can measure how many "defects" you have in a
process, you can systematically figure out how to eliminate them and get as
close to "zero defects" as possible. To achieve Six Sigma Quality, a
process must produce no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">The "3.4 Defects Per
Million Opportunities (DPMO)" is a gross confusion of the following
situation, for example: A population of 1,100,000 units is manufactured. A
perfect inspection/test process removes the 100,000 defective units. The
remaining 1,000,000 units are thus the intended population and contain no
defective units. Approximately three to four of these measure at Short-term
Mean ±4.5 Sigma or more extreme. The "3.4 per million" is thus a
characteristic of the Normal Distribution that is true of the intended
population, not the defects or defective units.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>Key themes in Six Sigma:</b> -</div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Some of the key themes of Six Sigma can
be summarized as follows: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Continuous focus
on the customer’s requirements<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Using
measurements and statistics to identify and measure variation in the production
process and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> other business processes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Identifying the
root causes of problems<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Emphasis on
process improvement to remove variation from the production process or other <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Business processes and
therefore lowers defects and improves customer satisfaction<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Pro-active management
focusing on problem prevention, continuous improvement and constant<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Striving for perfection<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Cross-functional
collaboration within the organization; and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Setting very high
targets. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b>Methodologies of Six Sigma</b>: -</div>
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<o:p> </o:p><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"> Six Sigma uses two
methodologies named ‘DMAIC’ (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control) and
‘DFSS’ (Design For Six Sigma).</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: 10pt; text-indent: -24px;"> 1. </span><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-indent: -24px;">DMAIC: - The Six Sigma DMAIC process is
an improvement system for existing processes falling below specification and looking for incremental improvement. </span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; text-indent: -24px;"> </span><span style="font-family: Times, serif; font-size: 10pt; text-indent: -24px;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt; text-indent: -24px;"> DFSS: - The Six Sigma DFSS methodology
has two variations named DMADV (Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify) and DMADOV process (Define, Measure,
Analyze, Design, Optimize, Verify). DFSS is used to develop new processes or
products at Six Sigma quality levels. It can also be employed if a current
process requires more than just incremental improvement. Both Six Sigma
processes are executed by Six Sigma Green Belts and Six Sigma Black Belts and
are overseen by Six Sigma Master Black Belts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Besides
this the two key methodologies commonly used are: -<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">1.DMADV: -</span></b><b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Basic Methodology consists of following five steps: -<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Define</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> the goals of the design
activity of the consistent with customer demands and enterprise strategy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Measure</span></i><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> </span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">and identify CTQs
(critical to qualities), product capabilities, production process capability,
and risk assessments.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 48.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 48.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Analyze</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> to develop and design alternatives, create high-level design
and evaluate design capability to select the best design.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 48.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 48.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Design</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> details, optimize the design, and plan for design
verification. This phase may require simulations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 48.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 48.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Verify</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> the design, set up pilot runs, implement production
process and handover to process owners.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">2. DMAIC: -<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">
Basic methodologies consists of following five steps: -<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Define</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> the process improvement goals that are consistent with customer
demands and enterprise strategy. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Measure</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> the current process and collect relevant data for future comparison. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Analyze</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> to verify relationship and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causality" title="Causality"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">causality</span></a>
of factors. Determine what the relationship is, and attempt to ensure that
all factors have been considered. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Improve</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> or optimize the process based upon the analysis using techniques like
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_of_Experiments" title="Design of Experiments"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Design of Experiments</span></a>. <o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l7 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">Control</span></i><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;"> to ensure that any variances are corrected before they result in
defects. Set up pilot runs to establish <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_capability" title="Process capability"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">process capability</span></a>, transition to
production and thereafter continuously measure the process and institute
control mechanisms.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Which quality management systems process
improvement tools have yielded the greatest results? <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Six
Sigma
- 53.6 % Problem Solving - 23.2 % <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Process
mapping - 35.3
% ISO
9001 -
21.0 % <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Root
cause analysis -
33.5 % Process Capability - 20.1 %<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Cause-and-effect
analysis - 31.3 % Statistical Process Control - 20.1 %<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Lean
thinking/manufacturing - 26.3
% Performance
Metrics - 19.2 %<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Benchmarking - 25.0 % Control Charts - 19.2 %<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -1.25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<b>Costs of Six Sigma Projects: -<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">
Although Six Sigma projects can have many benefits and help the company
to save money over the long run, there are also costs associated with Six Sigma
projects. They typically include the following: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Direct Payroll -
Payroll expenses for individuals dedicated to the Six Sigma project on a full
time basis. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Indirect Payroll
– The cost of time devoted by senior executives, team members, process owners
and others in the implementation of the Six Sigma project. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Training and
Consulting – The cost of teaching people Six Sigma skills <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Improvement
Implementation Costs – The costs of improving the production process to
eliminate the sources of variation identified in the Six Sigma project. This
might involve new equipment, new software, additional personnel costs for newly
formed positions, etc. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Software – Some
software such as Minitab Inc.’s Minitab statistical software or Microsoft’s
Visio, for generating flow-charts, may also be required. More advanced software
tools sometimes include Popkin’s System Architect, Proforma’s Provision or
Corel’s iGrafx Process 2006 for Six Sigma.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> </span><b>Six Sigma Roadmap:</b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> -<br />
The six sigma
methodology utilizes the Define-Measure-Analyze-Improve-Control (DMAIC) cycle
to achieve process excellence.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu_Xxx0_apIwnuVo7ludDEn6smslSyvkslYDylwrEOfKr-WpZB4wjnCU_HJWWVPpc4qEo78W9Y0NbQyxlHill1oesRhioqaNO5i3x5XUf-Vaz1o0vXllSVnRxAC-2x4jDsZZDjRJLTNk3q/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="394" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu_Xxx0_apIwnuVo7ludDEn6smslSyvkslYDylwrEOfKr-WpZB4wjnCU_HJWWVPpc4qEo78W9Y0NbQyxlHill1oesRhioqaNO5i3x5XUf-Vaz1o0vXllSVnRxAC-2x4jDsZZDjRJLTNk3q/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><br /> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div align="center" style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">BLOCK
DIAGRAM NO :- 2</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Six Sigma origins<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">The history of Six
Sigma is a well-documented one and hence we note only briefly here that its
origin as a quality improvement approach in the 1980s can be traced to the
American electronic giant, Motorola where a goal of improving all products -
goods as well as services - by an order of magnitude (e.g. a factor of ten)
within five years was established. This provided an important focus on the improvement
rate and, in particular, that simply “better” may not be sufficient, but that
the critical consideration is that of becoming sufficiently better
expeditiously. Six Sigma clearly focused resources at Motorola, including human
effort, on reducing variation in<i> all</i> processes, that is to say
manufacturing processes, administrative processes and <i>all other</i>
processes. To set a clear measure on the improvement work, the program called
Six Sigma was launched in 1987<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">defects at a rate of
3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO) for defects to arise. Note that
this almost certainly implies more than 3.4 defective units per one million
units, since typically any given unit is sufficiently complex so as to allow
multiple<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">.It is generally
possible to calibrate the “cost of quality” or - more accurately - the “cost of
poor quality” (CPQ) with the sigma level at which processes perform. Six Sigma
performance levels are generally considered to be world class with the CPQ
being less than 1 per cent of sales. By contrast sigma levels of three, four,
and five produce DPMO rates of 66,807, 6,210, and 233, and corresponding CPQ
ranges of 25-40 percent, 15-25 per cent, and 5-15 percent. These numbers
substantiate the importance of reducing process variation across all key primary
and support processes in an organization as well as variation of that obtained
from suppliers. Without significant divergence from our discussion this clearly
illustrates sound reasoning behind reduction in the number of suppliers used by
an organization that extends beyond negotiation/relationship issues into
statistical ones. A straightforward example of process sigma level estimation
is provided in the first chapter of Harry and Schroeder (2000). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Signs of significant
success at Motorola quickly became apparent. In fact, from 1987 to 1997
Motorola achieved a fivefold growth in sales with profits climbing nearly 20
percent per year, cumulative savings at $US14 billion and stock price gains
compounded to an annual rate of 21.3 percent. Motorola was also cited as the
first winner of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">America</st1:place></st1:country-region>'s
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award in 1988. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Soon other companies
became interested in the program and successively more companies were able to
demonstrate good results. As examples, AlliedSignal attained savings of $US2
billion during a five-year period while General Electric saved $US1 billion
over a two year window. Indeed, “big dollar impact” is one of five key reasons
cited by Hoerl (1998) for the success of Six Sigma. The other four reasons
cited by Hoerl for Six Sigma success are ones that any quality advocate should
embrace: continued top management support and enthusiasm, emphasis on a
quantitative and disciplined approach to process improvement, value placed on
understanding and satisfying customer needs, and the manner in which it
combines right projects with the right people and tools.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">employees, the year
2000 saw 14 people attending a seven month Black Belt (deep knowledge in Six
Sigma philosophy and methods) education program on a half-time basis, 20 more
people attending a two-day course on Six Sigma, and ten people in the top
management group attending a one-day course on Six Sigma. Six Sigma
applications at this factory saved about $US0.5 million during the first ten
months of 2000 - about $500 per employee over the entire employee base, but
closer to $10,000 per employee trained in Six Sigma methods. In the early
stages of Six Sigma program implementation these figures indicate something on
the order of simple cost recovery with return on investment promised for the
near future, since We believe that the “new” of Six Sigma is its explicit
linking of the tactical with the many companies have reported savings on the
order of $150,000 per Black Belt project with each Black Belt completing four
to six such projects annually. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>Is Six Sigma really something new? </b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">While typically
applied consistently within a company, the content of the Six Sigma approach
varies from company to company, consultant to consultant, and author to author.
Generally, however, Six Sigma programs do have some common features, among
which are the following:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">It is a top-down,
rather than bottom-up approach. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">It is a highly
disciplined approach that typically includes four stages: measure, analyse,
improve and control. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">It is a
data-oriented approach, making sound and heavy use of various statistical decision
tools. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">It is our position
that from a content perspective Six Sigma does not, in principle, contain
anything new. Its focus on processes and variation is central to what is
historically thought of as “quality control” and can be found in works by W. Edwards
Deming and Walter A. Shewhart. Design of experiments and statistical process
control, both of which are featured in Six Sigma programs, are not new - though
their proactive use to improve processes and products is certainly laudable.
Systematic application of quality tools such as Pareto diagrams and Ishikawa
diagrams in Six Sigma is praiseworthy, but it is with good reason that these
are counted among the so-called “old tools” of quality as these were developed
by the late Kaoru Ishikawa of <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">Japan</st1:place></st1:country-region>
during the 1950s. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">So what is it, if
anything, that is new about Six Sigma? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Reed (2000) contends
that there is nothing at all new about Six Sigma and that it “has been around
for many years, just called something else”. She goes on to say that Six Sigma
“could be called problem solving, team building, SPC, plan, act, do, check,
whatever you want ...”.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Carnell and Lambert
(2000) assert what we all know - that Six Sigma is no silver bullet and that
like most change processes involving people it is difficult to
institutionalise. The perspective offered by these two “in the trenches” Six
Sigma professionals is that it is a tactical tool of great value in achieving
operational excellence. Operational excellence is, of course, required for the
overall attainment of business excellence - something that also requires
customer-related, financial, and marketplace performance excellence (Edgeman,
2000). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Strategic. That is,
what is new in Six Sigma is that efficient, often statistical<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Techniques are used in
a systematic way to reduce variation and improve processes and there is a focus
on results - including customer-related ones that lead to enhanced marketplace
performance and hence improved bottom-line financial results. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The point is that Six Sigma is of great value in attainment of business
excellence and measurement of that progress</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">
so that appropriately configured and deployed Six Sigma programs may be highly
consistent with the results-orientation underlying various international
quality awards, such as the European Quality Award, America's Malcolm Baldrige
National Quality Award, the Canada Excellence Awards, and the Australian
Quality Award. Mikel Harry[1], key developer and proponent of the Six Sigma
program at Motorola, has defined Six Sigma as “a disciplined method of using
extremely rigorous data gathering and statistical analysis to pinpoint sources
of errors and ways of eliminating them”. Well-known statistician and quality
consultant Ron Snee (2000) has indicated that “Six Sigma should be a strategic
approach that works across all processes, products, company functions and
industries” and Bajaria (2000) reinforces this idea - a “nuts and bolts”
point-counterpoint discussion of each of 14 key Six Sigma ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">In order to
efficiently use statistical tools to base decisions on fact, substantial effort
and resources are dedicated to education and training of staff members.
Responsibility and authority are distributed in a structured way by using a
“belt” system similar to that used in Korean karate, to identify experience and
mastery of Six Sigma tools and application thereof. Indeed, the terms “green
belt”, “black belt” and “master black belt” convey particular meanings within
the Six Sigma vocabulary. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Here Six Sigma has
actively contributed to the creation of a comprehensive infrastructure within
the practising organization that includes clear routines for control and
reporting. It is a non-trivial issue, however, as regards how to get more
people - not only Black Belts and other formalised problem solvers - involved
in conquering mental barriers and using statistical methods more routinely in
daily work. For example, understanding of variation has been pointed out as an
important aspect for successful implementation of a Six Sigma program and has
been featured within the Deming management approach for several decades.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><br />
Six Sigma seen contextually</span></b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Six Sigma provides a
structured means of pushing product and process improvement, but we do not see
it as an alternative to TQM. It is important, instead, to position Six Sigma in
a larger context. As illustrated in BLOCK DIAGRAM NO.4, we regard TQM as a
management system consisting of values, methodologies and tools that aims to
improve customer satisfaction with a reduced amount of resources. TQM starts in
most descriptions from values such as the six provided in BLOCK DIAGRAM NO.4 focus
on customers, focus on processes, base decisions on facts, let everybody be
committed, improve continuously and top management commitment[2]. These values
contribute to creation of organizational culture. To attain this, the values
have to be supported, systematically and continuously, by suitable
methodologies and tools. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Of course,
“everybody's commitment” cannot be obtained by simply proclaiming that “it is
one of our deeply held organizational values”. As is commonly said, the proof
is in the pudding and organizational values reflect organizational practices so
that “everybody's commitment” and other values can be made part of the
organizational fabric through use of suitable methodologies in such a way that
the values permeate the work being done, whether that work is performed by
improvement groups or through goal deployment to individual goals. Robust and
sturdy tools are also needed to support, systematize and facilitate the work. As
examples, Ishikawa diagrams and Pareto diagrams are tools commonly used by
improvement groups <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">whereas deployment of
goals might well be facilitated through use of matrix diagrams. These are
reflective of approaches that may assist in embedding a value for fact-based
decision-making in the organization's culture. An organizational value of
focusing on processes can be obtained through use of Process Management, but
within that methodology tools such as process maps and control charts are
needed to map and control key organizational processes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">In building or
transforming an organizational culture we must identify those values that we
desire. We should then choose methodologies supporting those values and finally
tools supporting those methodologies. Methodologies are not unambiguous but
naturally some steps within a methodology may differ depending on the situation
or organization. Of course, some methodologies may support several values and
in general we need to employ multiple methodologies to support the various
values. More or less random acquisition and employment of methodologies and
tools that do not support organizational values should be avoided.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">With this view it is
obvious to us that Six Sigma is a methodology within TQM. The reason why this
methodology has been so successful is that it is structured and systematic and
uses several efficient tools. But it is also important to note that Six Sigma
in fact supports all six values in Figure 1. Methodologies, supporting several
values are important to the success of TQM. Six Sigma also illustrates that the
management system is dynamic. New methodologies and new tools will appear and
be developed and Six Sigma is an excellent example of this. But still Six Sigma
is a methodology within - not an alternative to - TQM in much the same way as
business process reengineering launched in the 1990s by Hammer and Champy<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">The main conclusion of
this article related to application of Six Sigma methodology by an organisation
is the following: Six Sigma is a methodology that might cut costs for your
organisation; however, think about how the Six Sigma methodology supports the
values of your organization and how you choose the tools and, above all, do not
forget the totality of TQM.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-right: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">Notes </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">1. Six Sigma is
sometimes called “cowboy quality” in part because of the ranch and rodeo
lifestyle of its main proponents Mikel Harry and Richard Schroeder. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">2. The number of
values varies between different sources. For example the European Quality Award
is based on eight values and the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award is
said to be based on 11 values. The six values in Figure 1 is the basis applied
by Bergman and Klefsjö (1994). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8u1YkyL_lCn39Md7LHoz7kIdAACoikm8EC8MUzWNB3YlUmsLXEhUZvQGeo4ISJcXUbh-0F_hhLo0pVd7o2l-IbwZqr6TNZoNrRPlwenezDf5SYlZPJTe7M2Txia5E-VB6WV0aLU2SDjxZ/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8u1YkyL_lCn39Md7LHoz7kIdAACoikm8EC8MUzWNB3YlUmsLXEhUZvQGeo4ISJcXUbh-0F_hhLo0pVd7o2l-IbwZqr6TNZoNrRPlwenezDf5SYlZPJTe7M2Txia5E-VB6WV0aLU2SDjxZ/s1600/Untitled.png" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 42.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><br />
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<v:fill opacity="26214f" color2="fill darken(118)" rotate="t" focusposition=".5,.5"
focussize="" method="linear sigma" focus="100%" type="gradientRadial"/>
<v:imagedata src="file:///C:\Users\a\AppData\Local\Temp\msohtmlclip1\01\clip_image005.jpg"
o:href="file:///G:\techno\s.s.%20sawale_files\mail.jpg" blacklevel="1966f"/>
</v:shape><![endif]--><!--[if !vml]--><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><b> </b> BLOCK DIAGRAM NO.:-3<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Six Sigma is a highly disciplined process that helps
us focus on developing and delivering near-perfect products and services. Six
Sigma is a statistically-based process improvement methodology that aims to
reduce defects to a rate of 3.4 defects per million defect opportunities by
identifying and eliminating causes of variation in business processes. Six
Sigma focuses on developing a very clear understanding of customer requirements
and is therefore very customer focused.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Why "Sigma"? The word is a
statistical term that measures how far a given process deviates from
perfection. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">The term "six sigma process" comes from the notion that if one
has six standard deviations between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean" title="Mean"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">mean</span></a> of a process and the
nearest specification limit, he will make practically no items that exceed the
specifications.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> The central idea behind
Six Sigma is that if you can measure how many "defects" you have in a
process, you can systematically figure out how to eliminate them and get as
close to "zero defects" as possible. To achieve Six Sigma Quality, a
process must produce no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities. </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN;">The "3.4 Defects Per
Million Opportunities (DPMO)" is a gross confusion of the following
situation.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Key themes in Six Sigma: -<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Some of the key themes of Six Sigma can
be summarized as follows: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Continuous focus
on the customer’s requirements<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Using
measurements and statistics to identify and measure variation in the production
process and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> other business processes<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Identifying the
root causes of problems<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Emphasis on
process improvement to remove variation from the production process or other <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Business processes and
therefore lowers defects and improves customer satisfaction<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Pro-active
management focusing on problem prevention, continuous improvement and constant<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> Striving for perfection<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Cross-functional
collaboration within the organization; and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 38.25pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 38.25pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Setting very high
targets. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 6.0pt; margin-right: 6.0pt; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Six Sigma is that
efficient, often statistical, techniques are used in a systematic way to reduce
variation and improve processes and there is a focus on results - including
customer-related ones that lead to enhanced marketplace performance and hence
improved bottom-line financial results. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">The point is that Six Sigma is of great value in
attainment of business excellence and measurement of that progress</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> so that appropriately configured and deployed Six
Sigma programs may be highly consistent with the results-orientation underlying
various international quality awards, such as the European Quality Award,
America's Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award, the Canada Excellence
Awards, and the Australian Quality Award. Mikel Harry[1], key developer and
proponent of the Six Sigma program at Motorola, has defined Six Sigma as “a
disciplined method of using extremely rigorous data gathering and statistical
analysis to pinpoint sources of errors and ways of eliminating them”.
Well-known statistician and quality consultant Ron Snee (2000) has indicated
that “Six Sigma should be a strategic approach that works across all processes,
products, company functions and industries” and Bajaria (2000) reinforces this
idea - a “nuts and bolts” point-counterpoint discussion of each of 14 key Six
Sigma ideas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com7tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-40390660429524951922011-11-22T11:23:00.001+05:302011-11-22T11:43:19.504+05:30ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXER<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;"> ABSTRACT:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 147%;">OFDM otherwise called orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing is a modulation and a multiple access technique that can be
applied to mobile communications. OFDM or Multitone modulation as it is
sometimes called is the basis for several commercial wireless applications. In
OFDM the segments are according to frequency there by dividing the spectrum
into a number of equally spaced tones, which are orthogonal with each other and
carries a portion of user information on each tone. As the mobile cellular
wireless system operates under harsh and challenging channel conditions, the wireless
channel is distinct and much more unpredictable than the wired because of the
factors such as multipath fading, shadow fading, Doppler spread and time
dispersion or delay spread. OFDM over comes the ISI (intersymbol interference)
in a multipath environment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 147%;">In order to combat these effects the modern wireless
systems employ a variety of signal processing techniques, which include the
factors such as equalization, error correction coding, spread spectrum,
interleaving and diversity. The sinusoidal waveforms making up the OFDM tones
have the very special property of being the only eigen functions of a linear
channel. With this property and the incorporation of small amount of guard
time, called the cyclic prefix to each symbol enables the orthogonality between
tones to be preserved in the presence of multipath. The cyclic prefix allows
the tones to be realigned at the receiver thus regaining orthogonality and is
used to absorb transients</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 128%;">from previous bursts caused by multipath. Thus OFDM
eliminates the effect of multipath, ISI (intersymbol interference), ICI
(intercarrier interference) in Mobile channels.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 16.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16.0pt;">INTRODUCTION:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 147%;">OFDM represents a different system-design approach.
It can be thought of as a combination of modulation and multiple-access schemes
that segments a communications channel in such a way that many users can share
it. Whereas TDMA segments are according to time and CDMA segments are according
to spreading codes, OFDM segments are according to frequency. It is a technique
that divides the spectrum into a number of equally spaced tones and carries a
portion of a user's information on each tone. A tone can be thought of as a
frequency, much in the same way that each key on a piano represents a unique
frequency. OFDM can be viewed as a form of frequency division multiplexing
(FDM), however, OFDM has an important special property that each tone is
orthogonal with every other tone. FDM typically requires there to be frequency
guard bands between the frequencies so that they do not interfere with each
other. OFDM allows the spectrum of each tone to overlap, and because they are
orthogonal, they do not interfere with each other.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 99%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 99%;">DEFINITION:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 139%;">Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) is
a communications technique that divides a communications channel into a number
of equally spaced frequency bands. A subcarrier carrying a portion of the user
information is transmitted in</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 139%;">each
band. Each subcarrier is orthogonal (independent of each other) with every
other subcarrier, differentiating OFDM from the commonly used frequency
division multiplexing (FDM).</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">OVERVIEW OF
OFDM:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 144%;">This paper describes OFDM and its application to
mobile communications. OFDM is a modulation and multiple-access technique that
has been explored for more than 20 years. Only recently has it been finding its
way into commercial communications systems, as Moore's Law has driven down the
cost of the signal processing that is needed to implement OFDM–based systems.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">OFDM, or multitone modulation as it is sometimes
called, is presently used in a number of commercial wired and wireless
applications. On the wired side, it is used for a variant of digital subscriber
line (DSL). For wireless, OFDM is the basis for several television and radio
broadcast applications, including the European digital broadcast television
standard, as well as digital radio in North America. OFDM is also used in
several fixed wireless systems and wireless local-area network (LAN) products.
A system based on OFDM has been developed to deliver mobile broadband data
service at data rates comparable to those of wired services, such as DSL and cable
modems.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 145%;">OFDM enables the creation of a very flexible system
architecture that can be used efficiently for a wide range of services,
including voice and data. For any mobile system to create a rich user
experience, it must provide ubiquitous, fast, and user-friendly connectivity.
OFDM has several unique properties that make it especially well suited to
handle the challenging environmental conditions experienced by mobile wireless
data applications.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 13.5pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt;">OFDM
FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 148%;">OFDM represents a different system-design approach.
It can be thought of as a combination of modulation and multiple-access schemes
that segments a communications channel in such a way that many users can share
it. Whereas TDMA segments are according to time and CDMA segments are according
to spreading codes, OFDM segments are according to frequency. It is a technique
that divides the spectrum into a number of equally spaced tones and carries a
portion of a user's information on each tone. A tone can be thought of as a
frequency, much in the same way that each key on a piano represents a unique
frequency. OFDM can be viewed as a form of frequency division multiplexing
(FDM), however, OFDM has an important special property that each tone is
orthogonal with every other tone. FDM typically requires there to be frequency
guard bands between the frequencies so that they do not interfere with each
other. OFDM allows the spectrum of each tone to overlap as shown in the fig1,
and because they are orthogonal, they do not interfere with each other. By
allowing the tones to overlap, the overall amount of spectrum required is
reduced.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 99%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 99%;">OVERVIEW
OF THE WIRELESS ENVIRONMENT:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 142%;">Mobile cellular wireless systems operate under harsh
and challenging channel conditions. The wireless channel is distinct and much
more unpredictable than the wireline channel because of factors such as
multipath and shadow fading, Doppler spread, and time dispersion or delay
spread.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">Multipath is a phenomenon that occurs as a
transmitted signal is reflected by objects in the environment between the base
station and a user. These objects can be buildings, trees, hills, or even
trucks and cars. The reflected signals arrive at the receiver with random phase
offsets, because each reflection generally follows a different path to reach
the user's receiver. The degree of cancellation, or fading, will depend on the
delay spread of the reflected signals, as embodied by their relative phases, and
their relative power.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig 1. Time Delayed multipath
signals</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> Courtesy: Internet</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 145%;">Time dispersion represents distortion to the signal
and is manifested by the spreading in time of the modulation symbols. This
occurs when the channel is band-limited, or, in other words, when the coherence
bandwidth of the channel is smaller than the modulation bandwidth. Time
dispersion leads to intersymbolinterference, or ISI, where the energy from one
symbol spills over into another symbol, and, as a result, the BER is increased.
It also leads to fading.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig2. Demonstration of multipath
reflections</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;">Courtesy: Internet</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">In many instances, the fading due to multipath will
be frequency selective, randomly affecting only a portion of the overall
channel bandwidth at any given time. Frequency selective fading occurs when the
channel introduces time dispersion and when the delay spread exceeds the symbol
period. When there is no dispersion and the delay spread is less than the
symbol period, the fading will be flat, thereby affecting all frequencies in
the signal equally. Flat fading can lead to deep fades of more than 30 decibels
(dB).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig3. Demonstration of time
varying fading</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">Doppler spread
describes the random changes in the channel introduced as a result of a user's
mobility and the relative motion of objects in the channel. Doppler has the
effect of shifting, or spreading, the frequency components of a signal. The
coherence time of the channel is the inverse of the Doppler spread and is a
measure of the speed at which the channel characteristics change. This in
effect determines the rate at which fading occurs. When the rate of change of
the channel is higher than the modulated symbol rate, fast fading occurs. Slow
fading, on the other hand, occurs when the channel changes are slower than the
symbol rate.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 147%;">The statistics
describing the fading signal amplitude are frequently characterized as either
Rayleigh or Ricean. Rayleigh fading occurs when there is no line of sight (LOS)
component present in the received signal. If there is a LOS component present,
the fading follows a Ricean distribution. There is frequently no direct LOS
path to a mobile, because the very nature of mobile communications means that
mobiles can be in a building or behind one or other obstructions. This leads to
Rayleigh fading but also results in a shadow loss. These conditions, along with
the inherent variation in signal strength caused by changes in the distance
between a mobile and cell site, result in a large dynamic range of signals,
which can easily be as much as 70 dB.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 99%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 99%;">OVERVIEW OF TRADITIONAL MOBILE WIRELESS
SYSTEMS:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">All modern mobile
wireless systems employ a variety of techniques to combat the aforementioned
effects. Some techniques are more effective than others, with the effectiveness
depending on the air-interface and the system-architecture approach taken to satisfy
the requirements of the services being offered. As mobile systems evolved from
analog to digital, more sophisticated signal-processing techniques have been
employed to overcome the wireless environment. These techniques include
equalization, channel or error-correction coding, spread spectrum,
interleaving, and diversity.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 142%;">Diversity has long been
used to help mitigate the multipath-induced fading that results from users'
mobility. The simplest diversity technique, spatial diversity, involves the use
of two or more receive antennae at a base station that are separated by some
distance, say on the order of five to 10 wavelengths. The signal from the
mobile will</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 142%;">generally
follow separate paths to each antenna. This relatively low-cost approach yields
significant performance improvement by taking advantage of the statistical
likelihood that the paths are not highly correlated with each other. When one
antenna is in a fade, the other one will generally not be.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">Spread spectrum systems employ a form of diversity
called frequency diversity. Here the signal is spread over a much larger
bandwidth than is needed for transmission and is typically greater than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. A wideband signal is more resistant to the
effect of frequency selective fading than is a narrowband signal, because only
a relatively small portion of the overall bandwidth use is likely to experience
a fade at any given time. There are two forms of spread spectrum, code division
multiple access (CDMA) and frequency hopping (FH).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt;">OPERATION OF
OFDM:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">The sinusoidal waveforms making up the tones in OFDM
have the very special property of being the only Eigen-functions of a linear
channel. This special property prevents adjacent tones in OFDM systems from
interfering with one another, in much the same manner that the human ear can
clearly distinguish between each of the tones created by the adjacent keys of a
piano. This property, and the incorporation of a small amount of guard time to
each symbol, enables the orthogonality between tones to be preserved in the
presence of multipath. This is what enables OFDM to avoid the multiple-access
interference that is present in CDMA systems.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 145%;">The frequency domain representation of a number of
tones, shown in Figure 1 highlights the orthogonal nature of the tones used in
the OFDM system. Notice that the peak of each tone corresponds to a zero level,
or null, of every other tone. The result of this is that there is no
interference between tones. When the receiver samples at the center frequency
of each tone, the only energy present is that of the desired signal, plus
whatever other noise happens to be in the channel.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig4. Two-dimensional
illustration of ofdm channel resource</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 145%;">To maintain orthogonality between tones, it is
necessary to ensure that the symbol time contains one or multiple cycles of
each sinusoidal tone waveform. This is normally the case, because the system
numerology is constructed such that tone frequencies are integer multiples of
the symbol period, as is subsequently highlighted, where the tone spacing is
1/T. Viewed as sinusoids. The below figure shows three tones over a single
symbol period, where each tone has an integer number of cycles during the
symbol.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> </span><b> </b><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig5. Time- and frequency-domain
representation</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig6. Integer number of sinusoid
periods</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Courtesy: Internet</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">In absolute terms, to generate a pure sinusoidal
tone requires the signal start at time minus infinity. This is important,
because tones are the only waveform than can ensure orthogonality. Fortunately,
the channel response can be treated as finite, because multipath components
decay over time and the channel is effectively band-limited. By adding a guard
time, called a cyclic prefix, the channel can be made to behave as if the
transmitted waveforms were from time minus infinite, and thus ensure orthogonality,
which essentially prevents one subcarrier from interfering with another (called
intercarrier interference, or ICI).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 142%;">Multipath causes tones and delayed replicas of tones
to arrive at the receiver with some delay spread. This leads to misalignment
between sinusoids, which need to be aligned as in fig shown below to be
orthogonal. The cyclic prefix allows the tones to be realigned at the receiver,
thus regaining orthogonality.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;">Fig7. Cyclic extension of
sinusoid</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 146%;">The cyclic prefix is sized appropriately to serve as
a guard time to eliminate ISI. This is accomplished because the amount of time
dispersion from the channel is smaller than the duration of the cyclic prefix.
A fundamental trade-off is that the cyclic prefix must be long enough to
account for the anticipated multipath delay spread experienced by the system.
The amount of overhead increases, as the cyclic prefix gets longer. The sizing
of the cyclic prefix forces a tradeoff between the amount of delay spread that
is acceptable and the amount of Doppler shift that is acceptable.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 99%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings;"> </span><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 99%;">CONCLUSION:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 99%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 145%;">This tutorial highlights the unique design
challenges faced by mobile data systems that result from the vagaries of the
harsh wireless channel, the wide and varied service profiles that are enabled
by data communications, and the performance of wireline-based protocols, such
as TCP/IP, with the realities of wireless links. OFDM has been shown to address
these challenges and to be a key enabler of a system design that can provide
high-performance mobile data communications.</span></div>
</div>Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-77110066439586439042011-10-09T19:12:00.000+05:302011-10-09T19:13:14.792+05:30Seminar Topic for Electronics<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
1. 4G Wireless Systems<br />
2. A BASIC TOUCH-SENSOR SCREEN SYSTEM<br />
3. Artificial Eye<br />
4. Animatronics<br />
5. Automatic Teller Machine<br />
6. Aircars<br />
7. Adding interlligence to ineternet using satellite<br />
8. ADSL<br />
9. Aeronautical Communications<br />
10. Agent oriented programing<br />
11. Animatronics<br />
12. Augmented reality<br />
13. Autonomic Computing<br />
14. Bicmos technology<br />
15. BIOCHIPS<br />
16. Biomagnetism<br />
17. Biometric technology<br />
18. BLUE RAY<br />
19. Boiler Instrumentation<br />
20. Brain-Computer Interface<br />
21. Bluetooth Based Smart Sensor Networks<br />
22. BIBS<br />
23. CDMA Wireless Data Transmitter<br />
24. Cellonics Technology<br />
25. Cellular Positioning<br />
26. Cruise Control Devices<br />
27. Crusoe Processor<br />
28. Cyberterrorism<br />
29. Code division duplexing<br />
30. Cellular Digital Packet Data<br />
31. Computer clothing<br />
32. Cordect WLL<br />
33. CARBIN NANO TUBE ELECTRONICS<br />
34. CARNIVORE AN FBI PACKET SNIFFER<br />
35. CDMA<br />
36. CELLONICSTM TECHNOLOGY<br />
37. CELLULAR NEURAL NETWORKS<br />
38. CELLULAR DIGITAL PACKET DATA<br />
39. CIRCUIT AND SAFETY ANALYSIS SYSTEM<br />
40. CISCO IOS FIREWALL<br />
41. CLUSTER COMPUTING<br />
42. COLD FUSION<br />
43. COMPACT PCI<br />
44. COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS PLANNING (CAPP)<br />
45. COMPUTER CLOTHING<br />
46. COMPUTER MEMORY BASED ON THE PROTEIN BACTERIO<br />
47. CONCEPTUAL GRAPHICS<br />
48. CORDECT<br />
49. CORDECT WLL<br />
50. CRUISE CONTROL DEVICES<br />
51. CRUSOE PROCESSOR<br />
52. CRYOGENIC GRINDING<br />
53. CRYPTOVIROLOGY<br />
54. CT SCANNING<br />
55. CVT<br />
56. Delay-Tolerant Networks<br />
57. DEVELOPMENT OF WEARABLE BIOSENSOR<br />
58. DiffServ-Differentiated Services<br />
59. DWDM<br />
60. Digital Audio Broadcasting<br />
61. Digital Visual Interface<br />
62. Direct to home television (DTH)<br />
63. DOUBLE BASE NUMBER SYSTEM<br />
64. DATA COMPRESSION TECHNIQUES<br />
65. DELAY-TOLERANT NETWORKS<br />
66. DENSE WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING<br />
67. DESIGN, ANALYSIS, FABRICATION AND TESTING OF A COMPOSITE LEAF SPRING<br />
68. DEVELOPMENT OF WEARABLE BIOSENSOR<br />
69. DGI SCENT<br />
70. DIFFFSERVER<br />
71. DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING<br />
72. DIGITAL CONVERGENCE<br />
73. DIGITAL HUBBUB<br />
74. DIGITAL SILHOUETTES<br />
75. DIGITAL THEATRE SYSTEM<br />
76. DIGITAL WATER MARKING<br />
77. DIRECT TO HOME<br />
78. DISKLESS LINUX TERMINAL<br />
79. DISTRIBUTED FIREWALL<br />
80. DSL<br />
81. DTM<br />
82. DWDM<br />
83. DYNAMIC LOADABLE MODULES<br />
84. DYNAMICALLY RECONFIGURABLE COMPUTING<br />
85. ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE<br />
86. Embedded system in automobiles<br />
87. Extreme Programming<br />
88. EDGE<br />
89. ELECTROMAGNETIC LAUNCHING SYSYEM<br />
90. E BOMB<br />
91. E INTELLIGENCE<br />
92. E PAPER TECHNOLOGY<br />
93. ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE<br />
94. ELECTRONIC NOSE<br />
95. ELECTRONIC NOSE & ITS APPLICATION<br />
96. ELECTRONICS MEET ANIMALS BRAIN<br />
97. EMBEDDED<br />
98. EMBEDDED DRAM<br />
99. EMBEDDED LINUX<br />
100. EMBRYONICS APPROACH TOWARDS INTEGRATED CIRCUITS<br />
101. EMNA<br />
102. EUVL<br />
103. EXT3<br />
104. EXTREME PROGRAMMING<br />
105. EXTREME ULTRAVIOLET LITHOGRAPHY<br />
106. Ferroelectric RAM<br />
107. Fluorescent Multi-layer Disc<br />
108. Face detection technology<br />
109. FSO transmitter<br />
110. FACE RECOGNITION TECHNOLOGY<br />
111. FIREWIRE<br />
112. FRACTAL IMAGE COMPRESSION<br />
113. FRACTAL ROBOTS<br />
114. FRAM<br />
115. FREE SPACE OPTICS<br />
116. FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING<br />
117. FUTEX<br />
118. Ga m i n g c o n s o l e s<br />
119. GMPLS<br />
120. GSM Security And Encryption<br />
121. Guided Missiles<br />
122. Green engine<br />
123. GAMING CONSOLES<br />
124. GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE<br />
125. GENETIC PROGRAMMING<br />
126. GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM<br />
127. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM<br />
128. GLOBAL SYSTEM FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION (GSM)<br />
129. GMPLS<br />
130. GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT<br />
131. GREEN ENGINE<br />
132. GRID COMPUTING<br />
133. GENERAL PACKET RADIO SERVICE<br />
134. GRAPHICS PROCESSING UNIT<br />
135. H.323<br />
136. HALO NETWORK<br />
137. HANDFREE DRIVING<br />
138. HANS<br />
139. HIGH ALTITUDE AERONAUTICALl PLATFORM STATIONS<br />
140. HIGH AVAILABILITY LINUX CLUSTERING<br />
141. HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS<br />
142. HIGH-AVAILABILITY POWER SYSTEMS<br />
143. HOLOGRAPHIC MEMORY<br />
144. HPJAVA<br />
145. HTAM<br />
146. HUMAN COMPUTER INTERFACE<br />
147. HURD<br />
148. HVAC<br />
149. HYDRO DRIVE<br />
150. HYPER THREADING<br />
151. HYPER TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY<br />
152. HYPERTEXT PREPROCESSOR (PHP)<br />
153. HY-WIRE CAR<br />
154. H_323<br />
155. High Altitude Aeronautical Platforms<br />
156. Home Networking<br />
157. Holographic memory<br />
158. Hyperthreadimax<br />
159. high speed data<br />
160. Honeypots<br />
161. HPJava<br />
162. Human Computer Interface<br />
163. Hurd<br />
164. InfiniBand<br />
165. Intelligent calling bell<br />
166. INFINITE DIMENSIONAL VECTOR SPACES<br />
167. Intel MMX<br />
168. INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS<br />
169. Ipv6 - The Next Generation Protocol<br />
170. Iris Scanning<br />
171. I MODE<br />
172. IDC<br />
173. IDS<br />
174. ISI<br />
175. IGCT<br />
176. IMAGE AUTHENTICATION TECHNIQUES<br />
177. IMAX<br />
178. INFINI BAND<br />
179. INFINITE DIMENSIONAL VECTOR SPACES<br />
180. INTEGRATED POWER ELECTRONICS MODULE<br />
181. INTEGRATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY IN MACHINE TOOLS<br />
182. INTEL CENTRINO MOBILE TECHNOLOGY<br />
183. INTEL MMX<br />
184. INTELLIGENT NAVIGATION SYSTEM<br />
185. INTELLIGENT NETWORK<br />
186. INTELLIGENT SOFTWARE AGENTS<br />
187. INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM<br />
188. INTERNET ARCHITECTURE AND ROUTING<br />
189. IP SPOOFING<br />
190. IRIS SCANNING<br />
191. ISOLOOP MAGNETIC COUPLERS<br />
192. ITANIUM PROCESSOR<br />
193. Integrated Power Electronics Module<br />
194. Integration of information technology in machine tools<br />
195. INTEL CENTRINO MOBILE TECHNOLOGY<br />
196. Interactive Voice Response System<br />
197. JAVA CARD<br />
198. JAVA MESSAGE SERVICE<br />
199. Javaring<br />
200. Josephson junction<br />
</div>
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Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-50883990069533498782011-10-04T11:57:00.001+05:302011-10-04T11:58:28.253+05:30WASTE HEAT AS NON CONVENTIONAL A SOURCE OF ENERGY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt;">ABSTRACT</span></u></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt;"></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> As fuel prices continue to
escalate the relevance of efficient energy is apparent to companies everywhere,
from the smallest concern to the largest multinational. The methods and
techniques adopted to improve energy utilization will vary depending on
circumstance, but the basic principle of reducing energy costs relative to
productivity will be the same. As such, field of energy conservation calls for
a new insight into the newer sources of
energy besides the conventional sources that can be employed in various industries
as well as in domestic applications.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> One such source is ‘Waste
heat in various industrial processes’. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">This
paper presents an overview of various waste heat recovery systems that are
available & a case study on ‘recuperator ‘as a waste heat recovery system.</b>
The recuperator under consideration has been installed upon the billet
reheating furnace in the rolling mill section of ‘Ferrous Alloys Corporation
(FACOR)’ – a steel company situated at M.I.D.C. Hingna, Nagpur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The case study proves the effectiveness
of various waste heat recovery systems in general & recuperators in
particular as non conventional sources of energy. This leads to lower
consumption of fuel. Lower consumption of fuel not only increases the productivity
of any thermal plant but also helps in reducing pollution levels caused for a
given level of the plant output.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 16pt;">Introduction</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">
Waste heat:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBlockText" style="margin-left: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Waste heat is heat, which is generated
in a process by way of fuel combustion or chemical reaction, and then “dumped”
into the environment even though it could still be reused for some useful and
economic purpose. The essential quality of heat is not the amount but rather
its” value”. The strategy of how to recover this heat depends in part on the
temperature of the waste heat gases and the economics involved.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Quality of heat:<span style="color: black;"></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Depending upon the type of
process, waste heat can be rejected at virtually any temperature from that of
chilled cooling water to high temperature waste gases from an industrial
furnace or kiln. Usually higher the temperature, higher the quality and more
cost effective is the heat recovery.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;"> Classification:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">High Temperature Heat
Recovery:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> As the name suggests these systems
are used where heat is being discarded at high temperatures (650 <sup>0</sup>C
& above)i. e. the quality of heat is very good. Such rejection of high
quality heat generally results from
direct fuel fired processes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Medium Temperature Heat
Recovery:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Most of the waste heat in this temperature
range comes from the exhaust of directly fired process units. The range for
medium temperature waste heat is generally considered to be from 200 <sup>0</sup>C
to 650 <sup>0</sup>C.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Low
Temperature Heat Recovery:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> This category includes any
system where heat is being discarded at temperatures below 200 <sup>0</sup>C.In
this range it is usually not practical to extract work from the source, though
steam production may not be completely excluded if there is a need for
low-pressure steam. Low temperature waste heat may be useful in a supplementary
way for preheating purposes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Commercial
Waste Heat Recovery Devices</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Recuperators</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> In a recuperator, heat exchange
takes place between the flue gases and the air through metallic or ceramic
walls. Duct or tubes carry the air for combustion to be pre-heated, the other
side contains the waste heat stream. A recuperator for recovering waste heat
from flue gases is shown in figure.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Regenerator</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The Regeneration, which
is preferable for large capacities, has been very widely used in glass and
steel melting furnaces. It consists of a two way flow passage for the fluids.
For one cycle the flow takes place in one direction so that heat in the flu gases
is absorbed by the fire bricks on the exhaust side. In the second cycle, the
direction of flow of gases is reversed so that the incomig air is preheated as
it passes over the hot fire bricks and gives the exhaust heat to the fire
bricks on the other side which is now acting as the exhaust side.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Heat Wheels:</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A
heat wheel is finding increasing applications in low to medium temperature
waste heat recovery systems. Figure 8.6 is a sketch illustrating the
application of a heat wheel. It is a sizable porous disk, fabricated with
material having a fairly high heat capacity, which rotates between two
side-by-side ducts: one a cold gas duct, the other a hot gas duct. The axis of
the disk is located parallel to, and on the partition between, the two ducts.
As the disk slowly rotates, sensible heat (moisture that contains latent heat)
is transferred to the disk by the hot air and, as the disk rotates, from the
disk to the cold air. The overall efficiency of sensible heat transfer for this
kind of regenerator can be as high as 85 percent.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Heat Pipe:</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A heat pipe can transfer
up to 100 times more thermal energy than copper, the best-known conductor. In
other words, heat pipe is a thermal energy absorbing and transferring system
and have no moving parts and hence require minimum maintenance.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The Heat Pipe comprises of
three elements - a sealed container, a capillary wick structure</span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">and a working fluid. The
capillary wick structure is integrally fabricated into the interior surface</span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">of the container tube and
sealed under vacuum. The Heat Pipe comprises of three elements - a sealed
container, a capillary wick structure</span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">and a working fluid. The
capillary wick structure is integrally fabricated into the interior surface</span><b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">of the container tube and
sealed under vacuum.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Typical Application</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The heat pipes are used in
following industrial applications:</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Process
to Space Heating:</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The heat pipe heat exchanger transfers the thermal energy from
process exhaust for building heating.</span></div>
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<b>Process
to Process:</b> The heat pipe heat exchangers recover waste thermal energy from
the process exhaust and transfer this energy to the incoming process air.</div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">HVAC Applications:</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></div>
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<u>Cooling:</u>
Heat pipe heat exchangers precools the building make up air in summer and thus
reduces the total tons of refrigeration, apart from the operational saving of
the cooling system.</div>
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<u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Heating:</span></u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> The above process is reversed during winter to preheat the make
up air.</span></div>
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<b>Economiser:</b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">In case of boiler system, economizer
can be provided to utilize the flue gas heat for preheating the boiler feed
water. On the other hand, in an air pre-heater, the waste heat is used to heat
combustion air. In both the cases, there is a corresponding reduction in the
fuel requirements of the boiler..</span> </div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger:</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> When the medium containing
waste heat is a liquid or a vapor which heats another liquid, then the shell
and tube heat exchanger must be used since both paths must be sealed to contain
the pressures of their respective fluids. The shell contains the tube bundle,
and usually internal baffles, to direct the fluid in the shell over the tubes
in multiple passes.</span> </div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Plate heat exchanger:</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Plate heat exchanger </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">consists of a series of separate
parallel plates forming thin flow pass. Each plate is separated from the next
by gaskets and the hot stream passes in parallel through alternative plates
whilst the liquid to be heated passes in parallel between the hot plates. To
improve heat transfer the plates are corrugated.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Hot liquid passing through a
bottom port in the head is permitted to pass upwards between every second plate
while cold liquid at the top of the head is permitted to pass downwards between
the odd plates. When the directions of hot & cold fluids are opposite, the
arrangement is described as counter current. A plate heat exchanger is shown in
figure.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> <b>Waste Heat Boilers:</b></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Waste heat boilers are
ordinarily water tube boilers in which the hot exhaust gases from gas turbines,
incinerators, etc., pass over a number of parallel tubes containing water. The
water is vaporized in the tubes and collected in a steam drum from which it is
drawn off for use as heating or processing steam.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">THE CASE STUDY</span></u></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Energy performance assessment of
recuperator</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Data available: 340tubes X 43mm OD X
1250mm</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1] Heat duty: Q</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">f </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">m</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">f </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cp [Ti-To]</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = ρV Cp</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">f</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> [Ti-To]</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 1.19x9583x1226.5
[650-400]</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 941.4kw</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2] Capacity ratio R= (</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;">T</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt;">i</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">-T</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">o</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">)/ (t</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">o</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">-t</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">i</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = (650-400)/
(300-30)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 0.925</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3] Effectiveness S = (to-ti)/ (Ti-ti)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 0.4354</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4] LMTD = θ</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8pt;">i</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">- θ</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">o</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">/ (log (θ</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">i</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">/ θ</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">o</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 359.9°C</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5] Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
[OHTC]</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
OHTC = U= Q</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">f</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">/(A x ΔT)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 0.0965kw/m<sup>2 </sup>K</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Energy performance
assessment of furnace</span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">WITHOUT RECUPERATOR</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Data available: % of
excess air= 100%</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> T</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;">o</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">=
650</span>°C<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Calorific value of fuel (LDO) =10700 <span style="color: black;">kcal/kg</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cost of fuel = Rs.16 per kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oil consumed= 60lit/tonne</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Production of firm= 4000tonne/month</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1] Theoretical air required to burn
1kg of oil= 14kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2] Total air supplied = Theoretical
air ( 1+ excess air/100)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 28 kg/kg of
oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3] Sensible heat loss = m Cp ΔT</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
Where m = actual mass of air supplied / kg of fuel + mass of fuel</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 28+1</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 29 kg/kg of oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
Q = 29 X 0.29 (650-30)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 5214.2 kcal/kg of oil</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Heat lost = 48.73%</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4] Heat utilized = C.V.- heat lost</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 10700 – 5214.2</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 5485.8 kcal/kg of
oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5]<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">
<u>Cost of oil/annum = 60 X4000 X12 X16 = rs. 46,080,000</u></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>WITH
RECUPERATOR</u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Data available: To = 400°C<span style="color: black;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">% of excess air= 100%</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Calorific value of fuel (LDO) =10700 <span style="color: black;">kcal/kg</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Cost of fuel = Rs.16 per kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Oil consumed= 40lit/tonne</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Production of firm= 4000tonne/month</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1] Theoretical air required to burn
1kg of oil= 14kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2] Total air supplied = Theoretical
air (1+ excess air/100)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 28 kg/kg of
oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">3] Sensible heat loss = m Cp ΔT</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
Where m = actual mass of air supplied / kg of fuel + mass of fuel</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 28+1</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 29 kg/kg of oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Q = 29 x 0.25 [400 -30] </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 2735.17 kcal/kg of oil</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Heat lost = 25.56%</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">4] Amount of heat recovered</span></i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = Heat without recuperator - Heat with
recuperator</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 5214.2 – 2735.17</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 2479.03<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>kcal/kg of oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">5] % of heat recovered</span></i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = (% heat lost with recuperator) </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 18pt;">/ </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
(% heat lost with out recuperator)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = (25.56/ 48.73) x 100</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 52.45%</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">6]</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Heat utilized = C.V.- heat lost</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 10700 – 2735.17</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> = 7964.83 kcal/kg of
oil</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">7]
Heat obtained per unit expenditure = 7964.83 ÷ 16</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
= 497.81 kcal/re.<span style="color: black;"></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">8] Effective increase in heat available per unit expenditure =
497.81 – 342.86</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
= 154.95 </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">kcal/re.</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">9]<u>
Cost of oil/annum = 40 X4000 X12 X16 = rs. 30,720,000</u></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 77.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 17.65pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 17.65pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 264.0pt;" valign="top" width="352"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Savings in oil costs= 46080000-3072000</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">
= rs.4308000</span></u></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"></span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">RESULT:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">1] For every rupee that is
spent upon the fuel, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>an additional
154.95 kcal of heat is available.</u></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">2] </span></u><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Annually <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Rs. 4,308,000 are saved</u></b> towards
fuel costs.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt;">CONCLUSION</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Thus we see that due to the use
of recuperator the fuel requirement for a given operation is greatly reduced as
a result of which, following benefits are obtained:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Direct Benefits:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 9.0pt; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> Recovery of waste heat has a
direct effect on the efficiency of the process. This is reflected by reduction
in the utility consumption & costs, and process cost.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Indirect Benefits:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">a) <b>Reduction in
pollution: </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">A number of toxic combustible wastes such as
carbon monoxide gas, sour gas, carbon black off gases, oil sludge, etc, releasing to atmosphere if/when burnt in
the incinerators serves dual purpose i.e. recovers heat and reduces the
environmental pollution levels.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">b) <b>Reduction in
equipment sizes:</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel
consumption, which leads to reduction in the flue gas produced. This results in
reduction in equipment sizes of all flue gas handling equipments such as fans,
stacks, ducts, burners, etc.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">c) <b>Reduction in
auxiliary energy consumption: </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Reduction in equipment sizes gives additional
benefits in the form of reduction in auxiliary energy consumption like
electricity for fans, pumps etc.</span></div>
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Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-43112960894139817452011-10-03T12:21:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:46:41.529+05:30IEEE Standard guidelines and rules for preparing Engineering paper presentation<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b>Author Guidelines for 8.5x11-inch Proceedings Manuscripts</b><br />
<br />
Author(s) Name(s)<br />
Author Affiliation(s)<br />
E-mail<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>Abstract</b><br />
<br />
The abstract is to be in fully-justified italicized text, at the top of
the left-hand column as it is here, below the author information. Use
the word “Abstract” as the title, in 12-point Times, boldface type,
centered relative to the column, initially capitalized. The abstract is
to be in 10-point, single-spaced type, and may be up to 3 in. (7.62 cm)
long. Leave two blank lines after the abstract, then begin the main
text. All manuscripts must be in English.<br />
<br />
<br />
<b>1. Introduction</b><br />
<br />
These guidelines include complete descriptions of the fonts, spacing,
and related information for producing your proceedings manuscripts.<br />
A zip-file of this sample manuscript is also available
(http://mecha.ee.boun.edu.tr/word2.zip), which you can use as a template
to prepare your paper.<br />
Please note that your paper should normally be limited to six pages. A
maximum of two additional pages can be used subject to a charge of
$100/page.<br />
<br />
<b>2. Formatting your paper</b><br />
<br />
All printed material, including text, illustrations, and charts, must
be kept within a print area of 6-7/8 inches (17.5 cm) wide by 8-7/8
inches (22.54 cm) high. Do not write or print anything outside the
print area. All text must be in a two-column format. Columns are to be
3-1/4 inches (8.25 cm) wide, with a 5/16 inch (0.8 cm) space between
them. Text must be fully justified.<br />
<br />
<b>3. Main title</b><br />
<br />
The main title (on the first page) should begin 1-3/8 inches (3.49 cm)
from the top edge of the page, centered, and in Times 14-point,
boldface type. Capitalize the first letter of nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs; do not capitalize articles, coordinate
conjunctions, or prepositions (unless the title begins with such a
word). Leave two blank lines after the title.<br />
<br />
<b>4. Author name(s) and affiliation(s)</b><br />
<br />
Author names and affiliations are to be centered beneath the title and
printed in Times 12-point, non-boldface type. Multiple authors may be
shown in a two- or three-column format, with their affiliations below
their respective names. Affiliations are centered below each author
name, italicized, not bold. Include e-mail addresses if possible. Follow
the author information by two blank lines before main text.<br />
<br />
<b>5. Second and following pages</b><br />
<br />
The second and following pages should begin 1.0 inch (2.54 cm) from the
top edge. On all pages, the bottom margin should be 1-1/8 inches (2.86
cm) from the bottom edge of the page for 8.5 x 11-inch paper; for A4
paper, approximately 1-5/8 inches (4.13 cm) from the bottom edge of the
page.<br />
<br />
<b>6. Type-style and fonts</b><br />
<br />
Wherever Times is specified, Times Roman, or New Times Roman may be
used. If neither is available on your word processor, please use the
font closest in appearance to Times that you have access to. Please
avoid using bit-mapped fonts if possible. True-Type 1 fonts are
preferred.<br />
<br />
<b>7. Main text</b><br />
<br />
Type your main text in 10-point Times, single-spaced. Do not use
double-spacing. All paragraphs should be indented 1 pica (approximately
1/6- or 0.17-inch or 0.422 cm). Be sure your text is fully
justified—that is, flush left and flush right. Please do not place any
additional blank lines between paragraphs. <br />
Figure and table captions should be 10-point Helvetica (or a similar
sans-serif font), boldface. Callouts should be 9-point Helvetica,
non-boldface. Initially capitalize only the first word of each figure
caption and table title. Figures and tables must be numbered separately.
For example: “Figure 1. Database contexts”, “Table 1. Input data”.
Figure captions are to be below the figures. Table titles are to be
centered above the tables.<br />
<br />
<b>8. First-order headings</b><br />
<br />
For example, “1. Introduction”, should be Times 12-point boldface,
initially capitalized, flush left, with one blank line before, and one
blank line after. Use a period (“.”) after the heading number, not a
colon.<br />
<br />
<b>8.1. Second-order headings</b><br />
<br />
As in this heading, they should be Times 11-point boldface, initially
capitalized, flush left, with one blank line before, and one after.<br />
<br />
<b>8.1.1. Third-order headings</b>. Third-order headings, as in this
paragraph, are discouraged. However, if you must use them, use 10-point
Times, boldface, initially capitalized, flush left, preceded by one
blank line, followed by a period and your text on the same line.<br />
<br />
<b>9. Printing your paper</b><br />
<br />
Print your properly-formatted text on high-quality, 8.5 x 11-inch white
printer paper. A4 paper is also acceptable, but please leave the extra
0.5 inch (1.27 cm) at the BOTTOM of the page. If the last page of your
paper is only partially filled, arrange the columns so that they are
evenly balanced if possible, rather than having one long column.<br />
<br />
<b>10. Page numbering</b><br />
<br />
Number your pages lightly, in pencil, on the upper right-hand corners
of the BACKS of the pages (for example, 1/6, 2/6; or 1 of 6, 2 of 6;
and so forth). Please do NOT write on the fronts of the pages, nor on
the lower halves of the backs of the pages. Do not automatically
paginate your pages. Note that unnumbered pages that get out of order
can be very difficult to put back in order!<br />
<br />
<b>11. Illustrations, graphs, and photographs</b><br />
<br />
All graphics should be centered. Your artwork must be in place in the
article (preferably printed as part of the text rather than pasted up).
If you are using photographs and are able to have halftones made at a
print shop, use a 100- or 110-line screen. If you must use photos, they
must be pasted onto your manuscript. Use rubber cement to affix the
halftones or photos in place. Black and white, clear, glossy-finish
photos are preferable to color. Supply the best quality photographs and
illustrations possible. Penciled lines and very fine lines do not
reproduce well. Remember, the quality of the book cannot be better than
the originals provided. Do not use tape on your pages!<br />
<br />
<b>11.1. Color images in proceedings</b><br />
<br />
The use of color on interior pages (that is, pages other than the cover
of the proceedings) is prohibitively expensive. Interior pages may be
published in color only when it is specifically requested and budgeted
for by the authors. DO NOT SUBMIT COLOR IMAGES IN YOUR PAPER UNLESS
SPECIFICALLY INSTRUCTED TO DO SO.<br />
<br />
<b>11.2. Symbols</b><br />
<br />
If your word processor or typewriter cannot produce Greek letters,
mathematical symbols, or other graphical elements, please use
pressure-sensitive (self-adhesive) rub-on symbols or letters (available
in most stationery stores, art stores, or graphics shops).<br />
<br />
<b>11.3. Footnotes</b><br />
<br />
Use footnotes sparingly (or not at all!) and place them at the bottom
of the column on the page on which they are referenced. Use Times
8-point type, single-spaced. To help your readers, avoid using
footnotes altogether and include necessary peripheral observations in
the text (within parentheses, if you prefer, as in this sentence).<br />
<br />
<b>12. References</b><br />
<br />
List and number all bibliographical references in 9-point Times,
single-spaced, at the end of your paper. When referenced in the text,
enclose the citation number in square brackets, for example [1]. Where
appropriate, include the name(s) of editors of referenced books.<br />
<br />
[1] A.B. Smith, C.D. Jones, and E.F. Roberts, “Article Title”, Journal, Publisher, Location, Date, pp. 1-10.<br />
<br />
[2] Jones, C.D., A.B. Smith, and E.F. Roberts, Book Title, Publisher, Location, Date.<br />
<br />
<b>13. Copyright forms and reprint orders</b><br />
<br />
You must include your signed copyright release form that will be
available in Author's Package when you submit your finished paper. We
MUST have this form before your paper can be published in the
proceedings.</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-54169797244270189172011-10-02T13:50:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:37:57.353+05:30Next generation Engines<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 20pt;">ABSTRACT</span></b></div>
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This paper deals with the recent
evolution in SI engines, that is, GDI technology along with turbocharging and
emission control.</div>
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Gasoline direct injection (GDI)
engine technology has received considerable attention over the last few years
as a way to significantly improve fuel efficiency without making a major shift
away from conventional internal combustion technology. In many respects, GDI
technology represents a further step in the natural evolution of gasoline
engine fueling systems. Each step of this evolution, from mechanically based
carburation, to throttle body fuel injection, through multi-point and finally
sequential multi-point fuel injection, has taken advantage of improvements in
fuel injector and electronic control technology to achieve incremental gains in
the control of internal combustion engines. Further advancements in these
technologies, as well as continuing evolutionary advancements in combustion
chamber and intake valve design and combustion chamber flow dynamics, have
permitted the production of GDI engines for automotive applications.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">GASOLINE DIRECT INJECTION</span></u></b></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="intro"></a><b>I</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">] INTRODUCTION</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 8pt;"> </span> Continued drawbacks from the conventional
carburetor have tended to develop new techniques in SI engines. The consistent
draw backs are the higher fuel consumption, greater emissions & lower
output, GDI is the recent technology which is becoming a dominant solution over
these limitations.</div>
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<br /></div>
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Direct injection has started to get a
grip on the petrol engine market and today we have really entered the age of
gasoline direct injection. The demand for more efficient engines offering
reduced fuel consumption but maintaining high output has been behind the evolution
of latest GDI engines. GDI engines are characterized by injection of fuel at
high pressure directly into the combustion chamber by specially developed
injectors. During the induction stroke the air flows into the cylinder. The
beginning of the end of intake manifold injection technology is marked by the
introduction of GDI engines. The GDI engine technology has received
considerable attention over the last few years as a way to significantly
improve fuel efficiency without making a major shift away from conventional
internal combustion technology.</div>
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<br /></div>
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GDI technology has potential
applications in a wide segment of automotive industry. It is attractive to two
stroke engine designer because of the inherent ability of in cylinder injection
to eliminate the exhaust of uncombusted fuel during the period of overlap in
intake and exhaust valve opening. The greatest fuel efficiency advantages of
GDI can be realized in direct injection stratified charge lean combustion
applications, significant fuel savings can be achieved even under stochiometric
operation. </div>
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<br /></div>
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Use of gasoline direct injection<span style="color: blue;"> </span>(GDI) can reduce charge-air temperature while
allowing for higher compression ratios.
This has the effect of reducing the potential for detonation yet
increasing gasoline engine efficiency. Instead of fuel and air mixing prior to
entering the cylinder as with typical fuel injection, GDI uses a high-pressure
injector nozzle to spray gasoline directly into the combustion chamber. An example of a GDI system is shown in Figure. One advantage of GDI is that as the fuel
vaporizes, it absorbs energy from the charge.
This “cooling effect” lowers the temperature of the air in the cylinder,
thereby reducing its tendency to detonate. </div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Figure 1. </b>A gasoline direct injection (GDI) system</div>
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GDI can also increase cylinder emptying during the exhaust
stroke.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">П] MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF GDI ENGINE</span></b></div>
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1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Ultra
low fuel consumption.</div>
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2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Superior
power to conventional MPFI engine.</div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b>The
difference between new GDI and current MPFI</b></div>
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<br /></div>
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For fuel supply,
conventional engines use a fuel injection system, which replaced the
carburetion system. MPFI or Multi-Point
Fuel Injection, where the fuel is
injected to each intake port, is currently the one of the most widely used
systems. However, even in MPFI engines there are limits to fuel supply response
and the combustion control because the fuel mixes with air before entering the
cylinder. Now day’s companies are developing an engine where gasoline is
directly injected into the cylinder as in a diesel engine, and moreover, where
injection timings are precisely controlled to match load conditions. The GDI
engine achieved the following outstanding characteristics.</div>
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<span style="color: black;"> </span><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
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Fig
shows comparison of GDI with other fuel injection systems.</div>
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<span style="color: black;"> </span> Fig.
Transition of fuel supply system</div>
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<span style="color: black;">The GDI technology have assisted the engine to acquire
certain outstanding features such as </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black;">1] Extremely precise control of fuel supply to
achieve fuel efficiency that approaches to that of diesel engines by enabling
combustion of ultra lean mixture.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black;">2] Very efficient intakes and relatively
higher compression ratio.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>MAJOR SPECIFICATIONS</u></b></div>
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PARAMETER</div>
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GDI</div>
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<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 24.7pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
CONVENTIONAL MPFI</div>
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<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.05pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Compression ratio</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
12</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
10.5</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.05pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Combustion chamber</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Curved -top piston</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Flat -top piston</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.05pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Intake port</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Upright straight</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Standard</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.05pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Fuel system</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
In cylinder direct injection</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Port injection</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.05pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
Fuel pressure(MPa)</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
50</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 154.1pt;" valign="top" width="205"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
3.3</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Fuel injection allows the fuel to burn completely in the cylinder, so
that, unburnt charge would be negligible which lacks any knocking or
precombustion in the engine. Higher compressions can be possible which will
increase power output, thermal efficiency without knocking. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>3. Technical
features</b> </div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;">Upright
straight intake ports for optimal airflow control in the cylinder </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;">Curved-top
pistons for better combustion </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;">High
pressure fuel pump to feed pressurized fuel into the injectors </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in;">High-pressure
swirl injectors for optimum air-fuel mixture </li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="charact"></a><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">III] <span style="text-transform: uppercase;">Major characteristics of the GDI engine</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<b><u><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">1. Lower fuel
consumption and higher output</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A] OPERATING MODES IN
GDI ENGINES</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> 1] <u>Stratified
operation mode</u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
The engine offers highest amount of
fuel savings in the stratified lean operation mode with a large amount of
excess air. As the fuel injected is small in quantity control over its
injection timing is very important otherwise homogenization of the same would
lead to no or very poor combustion. Therefore the fuel air mixture is
concentrated by strategic injection no earlier than last third of the upwards
movement of the piston so that the fuel will be concentrated exactly around the
spark plug. The air fuel ratio at this mode is 30 to 40.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
As there is
no dependency of fuel injection with throttle opening the throttle remains wide
open during the induction stroke, allowing the maximum air with proper
circulation. The charge stratification allows engine to burn total cylinder
mixtures with a much high concentration of air than conventional engines. The
air fuel ratio can be as high as 55:1. During stratified charge operation, the
injectors meter the fuel mass so precisely that unthrottled operation is
possible which reduces pumping effect and lowers fuel consumption. Stratified
mixture greatly decreases air fuel ratio without leading to poorer combustion.
In addition, ignition and combustion occur centrally in the combustion chamber,
surrounded by an insulating air cushion that reduces heat dissipation at the
cylinder wall, thus improving the efficiency. The characteristic-controlled
cooling also somewhat increases the economy; during underloads, it lets the
coolant temperature increase to 110 degrees Celsius, thus improving the
efficiency of the engine. However, the especially economical stratified lean
operation mode functions only in the case of underloads and low speeds (up to
3000 rpm). At higher speeds, the time is not sufficient to optimally prepare
the fuel, which is injected very late during the stratified lean operation
mode, and to control the emissions. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>2]
Homogenous operation mode </u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
When the GDI engine is operating
with higher loads or at higher speeds, fuel injection takes place during the
intake stroke. This optimizes combustion by ensuring a homogeneous, cooler
air-fuel mixture that minimized the possibility of engine knocking. <span style="color: windowtext;">If the driver requires increased engine performance,
the engine controller automatically switches to the homogenous operation mode,
with an evenly distributed fuel-air mixture in a stoichiometric relationship
(lambda equals 1). Now, the fuel is injected into the air in the intake in time
with the intake of air so that a homogenous, easily combustible fuel-air
mixture forms within the entire combustion chamber. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
This is not required at higher
engine loads, where the switch valve opens so that the air can flow into the
combustion chamber without any impediments. Another factor that reduces
consumption in the homogenous operating mode is that the engine has a higher
efficiency than conventional petrol engines with intake manifold injection due
to higher compression.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b>3] <u>Homogenous lean operation mode</u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
The third operating mode of the engine at
higher loads and speeds where stratified operation is no longer possible is the
homogenous lean operating mode. In terms of performance characteristics, it can
be said that this operating mode forms a belt between the stratified operation
and the homogenous operating modes. In order to increase the turbulence and
thus the inflammability of the lean mixture, injection and combustion run in a
manner similar as in the homogenous operation mode, with the difference that
more air is mixed in than is required for combustion. As a result, fuel
consumption can be reduced. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">B] <span style="text-transform: uppercase;">The GDI engines
foundation technologies</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<img align="left" alt="clear" height="1" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="5" />There are four
technical features that make up the foundation technology. The Upright Straight
Intake Port
supplies optimal airflow into the cylinder. The Curved-top Piston controls
combustion by helping shape the air-fuel mixture. The High Pressure Fuel Pump
supplies the high pressure needed for direct in-cylinder injection. And the
High Pressure Swirl Injector controls the vaporization and dispersion of the
fuel spray. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">1</span>] In cylinder air flow</b><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
The GDI engine has
upright straight intake ports rather than horizontal intake ports used in
conventional engines. The upright straight intake ports efficiently direct the
airflow down at the curved-top piston, which redirects the airflow into a
strong reverse tumble for optimal fuel injection.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-WwJlylOut0Pt8qW6PG0JY1vnyQe8h0nmeoikW8eUEAt6He3HYDQPlnulhyphenhyphenBXYGUEFl3R5ix06WDaaMxJK-Z5Kc9R1cjWJXhAgQPLYWvsveWuJT27lvQXwET7pM1RLXaUSppE41WeNFo-/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-WwJlylOut0Pt8qW6PG0JY1vnyQe8h0nmeoikW8eUEAt6He3HYDQPlnulhyphenhyphenBXYGUEFl3R5ix06WDaaMxJK-Z5Kc9R1cjWJXhAgQPLYWvsveWuJT27lvQXwET7pM1RLXaUSppE41WeNFo-/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 12.0pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://personales.alc.upv.es/%7Ejlpeidro/gdi/animeGif2b.html"><span style="color: blue; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: black;">2]
Fuel Spray</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">Newly developed high-pressure swirl injectors provide the
ideal spray pattern to match each engine operational modes. And at the same
time by applying highly swirling motion to the entire fuel spray, they enable
sufficient fuel atomization that is mandatory for the GDI even with a
relatively low fuel pressure of 50kg/cm2. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">3] Piston shape </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><img align="left" alt="clear" height="1" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="5" /><span style="color: black;">The curved-top piston controls the shape of the air-fuel
mixture as well as the airflow inside the combustion chamber, and has an
important role in maintaining a compact air fuel mixture. The mixture, which is
injected late in the compression stroke, is carried toward the spark plug
before it can disperse. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5kHTaY9LtT53tPjTIVNakQXCHjuQQX-1fD2uKSUhYpPZG6zJJAIBAMgQ3EH26p16r6MjcOLLMOkCmKjpUaKJ-07AXGyKL1BoxfGXqQ03tk2wYamZKENtFim7KeXDLt7cJrtP0V0RsreFd/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5kHTaY9LtT53tPjTIVNakQXCHjuQQX-1fD2uKSUhYpPZG6zJJAIBAMgQ3EH26p16r6MjcOLLMOkCmKjpUaKJ-07AXGyKL1BoxfGXqQ03tk2wYamZKENtFim7KeXDLt7cJrtP0V0RsreFd/s1600/Untitled.png" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span><span style="text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></b></div>
<b><u><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></u></b><b><u><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></u></b><b><u><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></u></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 6pt 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><u>2. <span style="text-transform: uppercase;">Realization
of lower fuel consumption</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b>(1) Basic Concept</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<img align="left" alt="clear" height="1" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="5" /> In conventional gasoline engines,
dispersion of an air-fuel mixture with the ideal density around the spark plug
was very difficult. However, this is possible in the GDI engine. Furthermore, extremely
low fuel consumption is achieved because ideal stratification enables fuel
injected late in the compression stroke to maintain an ultra-lean air-fuel
mixture. <br />
<img align="left" alt="clear" height="1" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="5" /> An engine for analysis purpose has
proved that the air-fuel mixture with the optimum density gathers around the
spark plug in a stratified charge. This is also borne out by analyzing the
behavior of the fuel spray immediately before ignition and the air.<span style="font-size: 8pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://personales.alc.upv.es/%7Ejlpeidro/gdi/animeGif3.html"><span style="color: blue; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<img align="left" alt="clear" height="1" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="5" /><b>(2) Combustion of
Ultra-lean Mixture</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; text-align: justify;">
In conventional MPI engines, there were limits to the mixtures leanness
due to large changes in combustion characteristics. However, the stratified
mixture of the GDI enabled greatly decreasing the air-fuel ratio without
leading to poorer combustion. For example, during idling when combustion is
most inactive and unstable, the GDI engine maintains a stable and fast
combustion even with an extremely lean mixture of 40 to 1 air-fuel ratio. </div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b>(3) Vehicle Fuel Consumption</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b> Fuel Consumption
during Idling</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The GDI engine maintains stable combustion even at low idle
speeds. Moreover, it offers greater flexibility in setting the idle speed.
Compared to conventional engines, its fuel consumption during idling is 40%
less.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>
</b><b><span style="font-size: 8pt;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Fuel Consumption during Cruising Drive</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At 40km/h,
for example, the GDI engine uses 35% less fuel than a comparably sized
conventional engine.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKFRWCFwdIH0tu3dB8z8dmgz7AE0oT-JTF9MnwYsjxuhGHdLK4RzjEdbUY2eaY6CPvWCgOkLl-sB_vgWxqmBn5DQyKYI3yX-H06k7CLpnoiOjuClYMC2pNwrXGJ8YdMO5RAD00MCS6ZP6Z/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="243" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKFRWCFwdIH0tu3dB8z8dmgz7AE0oT-JTF9MnwYsjxuhGHdLK4RzjEdbUY2eaY6CPvWCgOkLl-sB_vgWxqmBn5DQyKYI3yX-H06k7CLpnoiOjuClYMC2pNwrXGJ8YdMO5RAD00MCS6ZP6Z/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiRJe6tFMbmLSCnJWAb9ZvAkF0YiaI7Noils4EWjUNpNTLuLqq_6nm5hXd8xKc0X2LgC-jLhb9mnyYXNjjA7TGDbYcmayz8oqoMVfqnTQofNMsB3hoGb3mCsfVxTnlcjdUB67WkaFCO8428/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Fuel Consumption in City Driving</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The GDI
engine used 35% less fuel than comparably sized conventional gasoline engines.
Moreover, these results indicate that the GDI engine uses less fuel than even
diesel engines.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiDSuN0mRzqfelILMdO04qh-Oe3L4GHVnS6CKM6hyphenhyphenObb9zdrf5E6tBI4l-GOT65oe_tireflUqIKT2OfaTlmfa3HuQB_piaSiw8IGpkkZZ7grnXiZzd9khHddeep-J2DUmuCHTK7embQ5Y/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="118" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiDSuN0mRzqfelILMdO04qh-Oe3L4GHVnS6CKM6hyphenhyphenObb9zdrf5E6tBI4l-GOT65oe_tireflUqIKT2OfaTlmfa3HuQB_piaSiw8IGpkkZZ7grnXiZzd9khHddeep-J2DUmuCHTK7embQ5Y/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKFRWCFwdIH0tu3dB8z8dmgz7AE0oT-JTF9MnwYsjxuhGHdLK4RzjEdbUY2eaY6CPvWCgOkLl-sB_vgWxqmBn5DQyKYI3yX-H06k7CLpnoiOjuClYMC2pNwrXGJ8YdMO5RAD00MCS6ZP6Z/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u>Emission
Control</u></b><b><u><span style="font-size: 8pt;"></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Unregulated emissions such as
benzene, 1-3butadiene, formaldehyde, and acetaldehyde are the vehicular
hydrocarbon emission components coming out from the GDI engines, which will be
targeted near future. Hcs are removed by a catalyst at normal operating
conditions, but the conversion efficiency is low at the cold start conditions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
Previous efforts to burn a lean
air-fuel mixture have resulted in difficulty to control NOx emission. However,
in the case of GDI engine, 97% NOx reduction is achieved by utilizing high-rate
EGR (Exhaust Gas Ratio) such as 30% that is allowed by the stable combustion
unique to the GDI as well as a use of a newly developed lean-NOx catalyst.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFq1jOZn9cp4vEThH7kpu_5P1fwvX38fzzPTOYvILDKVatp3fN2nmb1ydJgH1KXKG8tsXdPGs_28LaW6lx7qfH75z1VxOEV7KUEb29TdUvvPy8q-wfjCLBwactcoMQTbAik7dK1Qnx4Vi6/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFq1jOZn9cp4vEThH7kpu_5P1fwvX38fzzPTOYvILDKVatp3fN2nmb1ydJgH1KXKG8tsXdPGs_28LaW6lx7qfH75z1VxOEV7KUEb29TdUvvPy8q-wfjCLBwactcoMQTbAik7dK1Qnx4Vi6/s1600/Untitled.png" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiDSuN0mRzqfelILMdO04qh-Oe3L4GHVnS6CKM6hyphenhyphenObb9zdrf5E6tBI4l-GOT65oe_tireflUqIKT2OfaTlmfa3HuQB_piaSiw8IGpkkZZ7grnXiZzd9khHddeep-J2DUmuCHTK7embQ5Y/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
3.
<b><u><span style="text-transform: uppercase;">Realization of Superior
Output</span></u><span style="text-transform: uppercase;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b>(1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></b><b>Basic concept</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<img align="left" alt="clear" height="1" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image008.gif" width="5" /> To achieve power superior to
conventional MPI engines, the GDI engine has a high </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
Compression
ratio and a highly efficient air intake system, which result in improved
volumetric efficiency.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Improved
Volumetric Efficiency</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
The upright straight intake ports
enable smoother air intake. And the vaporization of fuel, which occurs in the
cylinder at a late stage of the compression stroke, cools the air for better
volumetric efficiency.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtWO8AaCK8Ui1bG-Qc3yABXdhRObpaymxvkTKiF7j6RzIW9ejZ9b-ihuCNceQgNQSWIgTBkyopECIljVpunnhcfhIyk0_v64l4WLlx6LjTB25XLe1Ry7hVt7KuCZprikSF-2l8JJdd39n-/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="191" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtWO8AaCK8Ui1bG-Qc3yABXdhRObpaymxvkTKiF7j6RzIW9ejZ9b-ihuCNceQgNQSWIgTBkyopECIljVpunnhcfhIyk0_v64l4WLlx6LjTB25XLe1Ry7hVt7KuCZprikSF-2l8JJdd39n-/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br />
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>Increased Compression Ratio</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
The cooling of air inside the
cylinder by the vaporization of fuel has another benefit, to minimize engine
knocking. This allows a high compression ratio of 12, and thus improved
combustion efficiency.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEVSj_xi7t9LYxW222hGe_BJDNwdrpG91LEudofkdx56Sl6PjHanB83JKP7Jc9EZOIghFrhdPHBtLtDRhD58dJHpppo-eltGtNiwI0bRTqyzbnZAra_Omb8ivYr8lHQq8sm_jzPBtZ8JuM/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiEVSj_xi7t9LYxW222hGe_BJDNwdrpG91LEudofkdx56Sl6PjHanB83JKP7Jc9EZOIghFrhdPHBtLtDRhD58dJHpppo-eltGtNiwI0bRTqyzbnZAra_Omb8ivYr8lHQq8sm_jzPBtZ8JuM/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b>(2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b>Achievement</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b>Engine performance</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in;">
<b> </b>Compared to conventional MPI engines
of a comparable size, the GDI engine provides approximately 10% greater outputs
and torque at all speeds. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAfoWy3inPJDCDOrbLGDP2N549g52-3JW1VIAa7ulekTAZ5IJ9Bg5p2CSiL2x-1NWBx_Ij1O-_RYqBi0NpG3W3OgaWRb9ecMNvpxEU_M5QrDVG-w5kSQCrPy8R5DTtfNtAksBYUgMjVind/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="303" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAfoWy3inPJDCDOrbLGDP2N549g52-3JW1VIAa7ulekTAZ5IJ9Bg5p2CSiL2x-1NWBx_Ij1O-_RYqBi0NpG3W3OgaWRb9ecMNvpxEU_M5QrDVG-w5kSQCrPy8R5DTtfNtAksBYUgMjVind/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
</div>
<div style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt;">
</div>
<br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<b>Vehicle Acceleration</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<b> </b>In
high-output mode, the GDI engine provides outstanding acceleration.<br />
The following chart compares the performance of the GDI engine with a
conventional MPI engine. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd7PVjNOJt73VQwMeXyNzeAQPM2P8b-W_y91FjNjrc5ZkKFUYUa2yrt0XBy3tx7ajSltuQt3jM0dkaM-pdI6o6cXn-OlkAjuHvrr5l3MGyRRdtpWT9OrpWBFKtyVqECSCDBIV0syGGA_rt/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="124" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjd7PVjNOJt73VQwMeXyNzeAQPM2P8b-W_y91FjNjrc5ZkKFUYUa2yrt0XBy3tx7ajSltuQt3jM0dkaM-pdI6o6cXn-OlkAjuHvrr5l3MGyRRdtpWT9OrpWBFKtyVqECSCDBIV0syGGA_rt/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="margin: 6pt 0in;">
</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">GDI WITH
TURBOCHARGING</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In current turbocharged applications, the
intake and exhaust valves are never open simultaneously. Unfortunately, lack of
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">any</i> valve overlap allows combustion
gasses to remain in the cylinder after the exhaust stroke, which is a detriment
to the next combustion process and can possibly increase NO<sub>X</sub>
emissions. In GDI engines, though, the intake charge is air only—not an
air-fuel mixture. This means that both
intake and exhaust valves can be open at the end of the exhaust stroke and that
fresh air can be used to flush out the cylinder. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Another recent
innovation in turbocharger design that can further aid cylinder emptying during
the exhaust stroke is the concept of twin-scroll<span style="color: blue;"> </span>turbine
housing. Twin-scroll turbine housing
serves to prevent pressure-wave interaction of the exhaust flows. Engines with an even number of cylinders,
especially four-cylinder engines, frequently have a problem with exhaust
pressure-waves from cylinders just beginning the exhaust stroke interacting
with other cylinders that are nearing the end of the exhaust stroke. By using
typical single-inlet turbine housing, approximately ten percent of the
combustion gas remains in the cylinder after each exhaust stroke. Twin-scroll turbine housing, like that
pictured in Figure, creates two separate inlets to the turbine section. Each inlet combines the exhaust flows from
cylinders that are on different strokes in the cycle. Utilization of twin-scroll turbine housing
significantly reduces the pressure-wave interaction between the cylinders,
helping empty the cylinders of exhaust gasses more completely.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh-VGATZ1P2uWvLWT8NaCKnVz_chn8E8bXtK5YVcCLtQ2FP02-TWwN92sHH5gJG-vQ6lw1jaMlkQ8oXVNQ9lewlERY68J7cO6GsFUubyBBVuodhv6vPWP-IUBr7zudg98gtFoJT7xkYBG2/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="235" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh-VGATZ1P2uWvLWT8NaCKnVz_chn8E8bXtK5YVcCLtQ2FP02-TWwN92sHH5gJG-vQ6lw1jaMlkQ8oXVNQ9lewlERY68J7cO6GsFUubyBBVuodhv6vPWP-IUBr7zudg98gtFoJT7xkYBG2/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 1.0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Figure 16.</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span>This is a picture of a turbocharger
with twin-scroll turbine housing. Notice
the dual inlets that allow the separation of exhaust from interacting cylinders
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Gasoline for GDI engine</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b> </b> The GDI engine is persisting
fundamental drawback with sulfur content in the gasoline, which increases NOx
emissions during stratified operation mode. The sulfur content in the gasoline
should be restricted to 5ppm compared to 338ppm present actually in the gasoline.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">SUMMERY
& CONCLUSION</span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">SUMMARY</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
GDI
though developed long before in 1930s, its configuration and the new electronic
control are among the top of the new inventions. GDI on the way to satisfy
today’s fuel saving requirements and increasing environmental demands.
Flexibility to adopt changing vehicle requirements is the key benefit of the
GDI which separate it from other conventional engines.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
Emissions coming out from the burning of fuel at low temperature during
stratified operation mode are the major concerns ahead. Turbocharging and new
emission control techniques can be used for their subsequent regulation and
control.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
All
the major car manufactures are now shifting towards GDI and MPFI soon is
replaced by it. GDI engines will spread quickly in the countries having strict
standards about pollution control and the fuel quality being used.<span style="font-size: 16pt;"> </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">CONCLUSION</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
From this paper it can be concluded that GDI helps improving fuel
savings, thermal efficiency pioneered by its different operating modes.
Restriction of sulfur to 5ppm in gasoline is the key requirement for emission
control.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b><span style="color: windowtext;">Like
the all the fuel injection systems that have come before it, the new direct
injection engines will still require replacement parts and will likely suffer
from similar injector woes that plague today's engines. In fact, direct
injection injectors may prove to be even more troublesome than today's indirect
injectors because they're exposed directly to the heat of combustion. </span></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-58396252647428883612011-10-01T17:20:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:38:49.213+05:30THE SOLAR POWER SATELLITE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Abstract:</span></h2>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">The selling
price of electrical power varies with time. The economic viability of space
solar power is maximum if the power can be sold at peak power rates instead of
baseline rate. Demand varies roughly by a factor of two between the
early-morning minimum demand, and the afternoon maximum; both the amount of
peak power, and the location of the peak, depends significantly on the location
and the weather. New designs for a space
solar power (SSP) system were analyzed to provide electrical power to Earth for
economically competitive rates. The approach was to look at innovative power
architectures to more practical approaches to space solar power. A significant
barrier is the initial investment required before the first power is returned.
Three new concepts for solar power satellites were invented and analyzed. The
integral-array satellite had several advantages, including an initial
investment cost approximately eight times lower than the conventional design.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<h2>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Introduction: </span></u></h2>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">The
Solar Power Satellite is a concept to collect solar power in space, and then
transport it to the surface of the Earth by microwave (or possibly laser) beam,
where it is converted into electrical power for terrestrial use. The recent
prominence of possible climate change due to the “greenhouse effect” from
burning of fossil fuels has again brought alternative energy sources to public
attention, and the time is certainly appropriate to reexamine the economics of
SPS. In the analysis of the economics of solar power satellites to provide
electric power for terrestrial use, past analyses have typically assumed an
averaged (or "baseline") power pricing structure. In the real world,
price varies with location, season, and time of day; and the initial markets
for satellite solar electricity need to be selected to maximize revenue. It is
important to design the system to service the real-world electrical power
market, not to an unreal average-price model. The following criteria will have
to be used for a credible analysis of solar power satellite economic benefits
and rate of return:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Satellite power generation should fit electrical
demand profile</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Satellite power generation should generate power at
the maximum selling price</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Use actual data on electrical demand & price </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
<h3>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"> Earth-Sun L2 Design details-: </span></u></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">The
space power system designed to be located Earth-Sun L2 will be radically
different from conventional GEO Space power concept Since the sun and Earth are
nearly the same direction, it can feature:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Integrated solar concentrator dish/microwave
transmission dish</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">2.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Integrated solar cell/solid state transmitters</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">3.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">No rotating parts or slip-rings</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Frequency: 30 GHz: efficiency is lower than 2.45 GHz,
but much tighter beam</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">4.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">transmitter diameter: 3 km</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">5.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">receiver diameter: 6 km</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">6.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">3 ground sites, receive 8 hours per day 33,000 16.5
meter integrated PV concentrator/transmitter elements</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">7.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Concentrator PV efficiency 35% </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Based on L'Garde designs
for inflatable microwave antennas, it should be possible to make a 16.5-meter
concentrator/antenna dish for 15 kg. The solar array/solid state power
amplifier array adds an additional 9 kg, for a mass of 24 kg per element . </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
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<h3>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Table:
Super-synchronous Solar Power Satellite: Mass and power</span></u></h3>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Mass of mirror element</span></h4>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Similar to the design flown on the shuttle</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Solar concentration ratio 50, focal plane area 4.28
square meters</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Focal plane array mass is 9 kg</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">total mass per dish is 24 kg</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">PV power per dish is 100 kW</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Total Mass</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Inflatable PV
concentrator/transmitter elements mass 15 kg each (L’Garde design) PV mass 9 kg
each (50x concentration) Structural mass 500,000 kg</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Total Mass 1,300 tonnes</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">At assumed transmitter efficiency
33% (today’s technology): <b>1 GW power output</b></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">At assumed transmitter efficiency 67% (future
technology): <b>2 GW power output</b></span></div>
<br />
<h3>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Disadvantages
of Earth-sun L2 Solar Power Satellite</span></u></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">1. Size. The
satellite-Earth distance of 1.5 million km means that the physics of
diffraction demands a large size. This means that the initial cost will be
high.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">2. Electrical generation
profile. The design produces power primarily during the night. For the existing
U.S. power market, the maximum power usage is during the day.</span></div>
<h3>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Fixed
Geo synchronous Solar Power Satellite</span></u></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">One aspect of the
design remains extremely attractive: the absence of a rotary joint makes the L2
solar power satellite a design with no moving parts in geo synchronous orbit.
The baseline figure of merit for this design was to examine how the power
production profile fits with the demand (and price) profile for terrestrial
electrical power, assuming that the power is to "fill in" for a
ground solar power system. The satellite designed with the same design criteria:
maximum simplicity; no moving parts; mission is to power when ground solar
power is not available.A fixed microwave transmitter is permanently mounted on
a bifacial solar array, which can be illuminated from either side. The maximum
power dawn and at dusk, with zero power production at noon and at midnight .
This fills in for a hypothetical solar array on the ground, which produces
maximum power at noon and zero power at dawn and dusk. By employing a fixed
transmitter attached to the solar array, the power management and distribution
system size can be greatly simplified and reduced in mass. The difficulties
associated with power transfer from the array to the transmitter are minimized,
and the mass and cost of the SPS are reduced. The new SPS needs only gravity-gradient
stabilization to ensure that the transmitter remains pointed to the rectenna
site on the Earth. The solar array is now a simple flat structure to support
the photovoltaic solar cells. Since the array is designed to have cosine
illumination, a complicated structure is not required to point the arrays to
the Sun. Therefore further mass and cost savings may be realized. Over the
course of a day, the fixed array produces 64% of the energy of a tracking array
of the same size.</span></div>
<h3>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">Analysis
Using "Space Segment Model" Spreadsheet</span></u></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> The purpose of the Space Segment Model is to
evaluate the impact of technology and design choices on the mass, performance,
and cost of various solar power satellite (SPS) concepts using a common model.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"><b> </b><br /><b><span style="color: black;"></span></b></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Figure. </span></b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Solar power satellite design with
fixed <b>Figure. </b>GEO
solar power satellite provides microwave transmitter (no moving parts). maximum power at 6 AM and 6 PM.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">In the Input
worksheet, the user chooses various SPS concepts, architectures, and orbital
parameters. The chosen parameters are used in the various other worksheets
according to their purpose, and the relevant values are output to the summary
worksheet. The user may go to each specific worksheet to examine how performance
and cost characteristics are evaluated, and may make changes to these
worksheets. This allows the user to customize to some degree the SSM to fit the
SPS concept understudy. For the purposes of this study, the SSM provides more
analysis than required. Several of the worksheet calculations were not
applicable, such as market cities and interplanetary trajectory calculations.
For the applicable worksheets, namely Solar Collection, Power Management and
Distribution (PMAD), Power Transmission, Structure, and Propulsion, default
values were used in many cases, as they were appropriate to the concept under
study. When necessary, relevant values in the applicable worksheets were
altered to suit the concept under study. By selectively altering the SSM, the model
was used to determine the viability of the concept under study.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Figure. </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">The Space Segment Model was used to perform a
first-order sizing of the concept. By inputting the desired values of SPS
concept, structure type, orbit type, power delivered, photovoltaic cell type,
transmitter frequency, etc results of system and subsystem mass and cost were
output to the Summary worksheet. Then relevant values in the appropriate
sub-system worksheets were altered to better reflect the proposed design. A
standard design was compared with the fixed design. The design considered is a
bi-facial solar array which would require two arrays with power scaled to
deliver 1 GW ground power scaled accordingly with values from the Solar
Conversion worksheet. Thin film solar cell arrays were assumed. Transmission frequency of 5.8 GHz was chosen.
Higher frequencies suffer from unacceptable atmospheric attenuation, and lower
frequencies require larger transmitter arrays and/or rectennas. When revising
the Space Segment Model to fit with the proposed concepts, each subsystem can
be modified to a certain degree, and some cannot be modified at all.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b>The differences between the baseline and
the fixed GEO systems are: </b>Transmitter subsystem: no modification since it
is identical in both cases. It is sized according to power output and
frequency; other SPS variables have no effect on the transmitter. Solar
conversion subsystem: revised to be a bi-facial array, as opposed to a single
sun-tracking array. Attitude control and orbit maintenance: reduced since the
fixed SPS would be gravity-gradient stabilized. While station keeping cannot be
neglected in a thorough design, for a first-order sizing it may be assumed to
be negligible in terms of overall system mass and cost. Robotic subsystem:
responsible for the construction of the SPS in LEO, and so is not affected to a
large degree by the simplified system. Structure subsystem: a simple structure
was chosen in the Input worksheet, and thus mass or cost reductions cannot be
realized directly. However, it is assumed that both solar arrays can be fixed
to the one structure, so mass and cost savings are indirectly realized.
Telecommunications subsystem: ignored; negligible mass and cost as fraction of
total SPS. PMAD subsystem: The mass and cost of the cabling are eliminated,
since very little cabling is required. Also, since the transmitter is fixed to
the solar array, there is no need for a rotary joint. However, a sizeable
portion of the PMAD subsystem is attributed to the voltage converters, which
are necessary to transfer GW order levels of power to the transmitter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b>Thermal subsystem</b>: incorporated
throughout the SPS, and is evaluated in conjunction which the other subsystems.
Propulsion subsystem: required to move the SPS from LEO to GEO, is dependent
solely upon the overall SPS mass, and so is automatically calculated.</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Integration and testing</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">: automatically evaluated according to the other
subsystems. Listed below is a summary of relevant output values, followed by
the revised values generated by modifying the relevant values in the
appropriate sub-system worksheets. In table it is assumed that a bifacial solar
array can be produced at no additional cost or weight. Compared to the
baseline, total mass savings is 3%, but total cost reduction is nearly 10%. The
cost associated with an additional solar array is substantially greater than
the mass and cost savings realized through satellite design simplification. It
was anticipated that cost reductions from a simplified power management and
distribution (PMAD) system would be large, however, the PMAD system accounts
for only 2% of the overall system cost, regardless of it being a substantial
portion of the system mass. Therefore PMAD cost savings do not have a large
effect on the overall system cost, and consequently is unable to offset the
increased costs from the additional solar array. For the proposed concept to be
lower in cost than the baseline, it is necessary that the cost per watt of the
solar cells be reduced significantly. For example, a 50% reduction in thin film
photovoltaic cell cost, from $1/watt to $0.50/watt [9], would result in a
system cost equal to that of a single-array SPS. In other words, the previously
calculated savings of 3% mass reduction and 10% cost reduction would be
possible. The proposed SPS design could then become economically feasible (at
least according to a first-order calculation). Examination of the power price
profiles for candidate urban areas, indicated that the cosine power production
peaking at sunrise and sunset did not well match near-term power demand. Even
if a noon peaked solar generation is subtracted from the demand curve, the
power profile still does not perfectly match requirements. Much of the power is
produced when the power demand is very low (e.g., before 8 AM), and electricity
price is low. Since the power profile of the proposed design is not suited for
selling at peak demand, and much of the power produced will not be sold at peak
price, the higher energy cost per giga-watt-hour means that the design is not
economically feasible in the near-term compared to the base-line.</span></div>
<h2>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Fixed Design with
integrated microwave transmitter: the "8 AM/4 PM" design.</span></u></h2>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">If the design constraint of
a single array is relaxed, two arrays can be baselined, and the arrays can be
tilted outward to accommodate the actual demand peak (after subtraction of
solar) at 8 AM and 4 PM (or other times chosen to fit the peak demand). With
the addition of tilt, it is no longer true that the microwave beam is
perpendicular to the solar arrays. The backside of each solar array is in the
view of the Earth. A significant difficulty of the earlier design is the fact
that the initial size of the system requires an extremely high initial
investment. Due to the risk of the investment (market risk as well as
technical), such investment is unlikely to occur. The redesign of the solar
power satellite opens the possibility of integrating the solar array directly
to the micro-wave transmission [5,6]. By
placing solid-state microwave transmitters directly on the back of the solar
array, power management and distribution, as well as all voltage conversion, is
eliminated. Figure 9 shows the conceptual design for a satellite to deliver
maximum power at 8 AM and 4 PM, where the back
side of each array is an integrated microwave transmitter. This design
was presented at the third SERT technical integration meeting [13]. The
advantages of integration of the solar arrays and the transmitter are discussed
in reference [5] and [6]. By integrating solar array with the microwave
transmitter, the transmitter aperture becomes as large as the solar array area.
This results in a narrower beam. A narrow beam allows smaller rectenna areas,
thereby permitting much smaller solar power satellites. The smaller scale
reduces the initial capital investment. For "conventional" SPS
designs, the ratio of solar array area to the transmitter array area is
approximately a factor of 64. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b><span style="color: black;">Figure: </span></b><span style="color: black;">notional
design for a solar power satellite to deliver peak power at 9 AM and 4 PM.</span> <span style="color: black;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Very large
scale integration Each solar-array element incorporates microwave transistor
on reverse side Reverse side of solar
array acts as phased array antenna (Phase signal must be distributed to each
element) For the integrated design, the transmitter area equals the solar array
area. For the same power density on the ground, the minimum system size
decreases in power by a factor of 4 for the 4 PM/8 AM tilt design. The rectenna
area scales proportionately, and the minimum investment cost to first power
decreases. Overall, an integrated 4 PM/8 AM fixed delivers same peak power, but
2/π (64%) lower total energy than a fully tracking SPS. The power is delivered
at peak-power rates, not baseline power rates, resulting in two times higher
revenue per kW-hr. Thus, the integrated SPS delivers 27% more revenue at 30%
lower cost. <b>The bottom
line is that the integrated SPS delivers power at 45% lower cost. </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText3" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;">By reducing the size of the SPS to take
advantage of the narrower beam, an integrated SPS can be decreased in power by
factor of 4. This means that the cost to first power can be reduced by factor
of 5.7. Since the investment required to reach first return is the major
showstopper for the economic case for space solar power, this is a significant
improvement in the design.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Fixed Design
with integrated microwave transmitter: the "Slab" One-sided array</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">The 8 AM/4 PM
design has two leaves in a "dihedral" configuration. It is evident,
however, that the operation of the two leaves are independent of each other.
This brings up the possibility of making a solar power satellite with just a
single leaf: a "slab" design, with the solar energy incident on one
side and the power beamed out the other.
For the same power density on the ground, the minimum system size
decreases in power by a factor of 8 for a face-on solar array. This is even
better than the factor of 4 found for the 4 PM/8 AM tilt. The tilt of the
system can be chosen to provide power that is optimally adjusted to the peak
power requirements. For example, a tilt of 30 degrees could be used to provide
peak power at 2 PM. This matches the maximum power demand of urban areas in the
United States. This peak can be adjusted forward or back, subject to the
constraint that peaks at (or near) 6 AM and 6 PM are not possible, since these
would require the array to be edge-on to the direction of microwave beam.
Figure 10 shows a slab" one-sided array tilted to produce peak power at 2
PM. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRT6lgkLNpSzfu8posPt7OEpOYz5L_hnSD9mFz8chZK32dQ_jJTVRkWwgq0esIF4kt1ZRGDQU91AEpycS72pZFEVjLaUZB2ZejKxFOQREtx5mqtF2VjIuzl_Lqj7Feyl6TScodpRVjrbo0/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="244" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRT6lgkLNpSzfu8posPt7OEpOYz5L_hnSD9mFz8chZK32dQ_jJTVRkWwgq0esIF4kt1ZRGDQU91AEpycS72pZFEVjLaUZB2ZejKxFOQREtx5mqtF2VjIuzl_Lqj7Feyl6TScodpRVjrbo0/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <br /><span style="color: black;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> <b>Figure. </b>"Slab" single-sheet
solar array, tilted to provide peak power at 2 PM.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">In this design,
the 2 PM tilt is not a gravity-gradient equilibrium. Maintaining the tilt will
require</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">stabilization.
For example, a gravity-gradient boom could be deployed downward on a truss to
put thesystem into gravity-gradient stability.An alternate version would be to
orient the solar array horizontally, and to direct the beam at an angle,to
reach a receiver located at a slightly eastward latitude. The horizontal
orientation is an equilibrium inthe gravitational field, but weakly unstable
(this is the orientation of the ISS, for example). By aiming thepower beam
approximately 2500 km east, the “noon” power beak generation for the satellite
can be received at2PM.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKHt-mRj4PI3XcFVLkah-FFw-ZiXy4LdSI2jkVPTzO0WXrObcDN3aFicd4SbIjmfh1nNrvBtXN4wbkloKPz8kZ57vFW5HBzs5M57sYn2jQcg54IuAk5izBueE-npokb0TRqijQlBdWLuhR/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="69" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhKHt-mRj4PI3XcFVLkah-FFw-ZiXy4LdSI2jkVPTzO0WXrObcDN3aFicd4SbIjmfh1nNrvBtXN4wbkloKPz8kZ57vFW5HBzs5M57sYn2jQcg54IuAk5izBueE-npokb0TRqijQlBdWLuhR/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> Table .shows a space-segment model of the "slab"
design. The cost of the design is 64% of the cost of the conventional tracking
array. The conclusions of this analysis are:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">1.Lower total energy, but power is matched to peak
demand</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">2.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">At the same size, system delivers 64% of the power at
64% of the cost</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">3.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">But power sells at 2 PM peak power rates, not baseline
power rates</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">4.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">minimum size can smaller by factor of 8</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">5.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Eight times lower investment to first power</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">6.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;">8 times more attractive</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></b><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></span></u><br />
<h2>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Power Transmission
System:</span></u></h2>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Power
transmission from the satellite is made by 2.45 GHz micro-wave beam emitted
from the spacetenna, the antenna onboard the satellite. The beaming angle as
large as 60 degrees of this case makes this requirement more important than in
the case of the Reference System.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b><i>Table: Spacetenna
Characteristics </i></b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b><i><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></i></b><b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Electrical Characteristics </span></b></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 90.0%;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 50.0%;" width="50%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Frequency
</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">2.45GHz
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Beam
control </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Retrodirective
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Beam
scanning angle </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">+30
degrees (east-west) </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">+16.7
degrees (north-south) </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Power
distribution </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">constant
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Power
density </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">574W/m2
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Max.
power density on ground </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">0.9mW/cm2
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Input
power to spacetenna </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">16
MW </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 8; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Transmitting
power </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">10
MW </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b> Mechanical Characteristics :</b></span></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 1.5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184; width: 90.0%;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt; width: 50.0%;" width="50%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Shape
and Dimension </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">132m
x 132m square </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Mass
</span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">134.4
ton </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Number
of Array module </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">88
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Number
of subarray </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">1936
</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Number
of antenna elements </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">2,547,776
units </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Number
of pilot receiver </span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: .75pt .75pt .75pt .75pt;"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">7,744
units </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<h2 style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Conclusions:</span></u><u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-weight: normal;"></span></u></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">A space solar power
generation system can be designed to work in synergy with ground solar power.
Previous Space Solar Power architectures were designed to deliver 24-hour
power; this design constraint was relaxed. A non-tracking, integrated
solar/microwave Space Power system can be configured to match peak power demand
.The economic case for a solar power satellite is most compelling if the solar
power satellite can generate power that sells at peak, rather than average,
price. Data from New York and Boston were examined to determine when the peak
power prices occur. Several new designs for solar power satellites were
considered, in an attempt to maximize the amount of power produced at peak
rates. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-34893679318586995092011-09-30T13:24:00.001+05:302011-10-03T12:39:33.764+05:30MICROTURBINES<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoBodyText3" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 9.35pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b> <span style="font-size: small;">ABSTRACT</span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText3" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 9.35pt; text-align: justify;">
Distributed generation is one of the important
field of research now a days. Market prospect for microturbine for distributed
power generation and their associated high grade heat extremely encouraging.
Therefore microturbines are becoming a point of study. Presented paper tries to
discus the microturbine concept, technology description gives technical and
practical background through basic process and thermodynamic cycle. Various
components of microturbine and their performance is briefly analyzed.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText3" style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: 9.35pt; text-align: justify;">
To improve this characteristics and efficiency
the points like development of chemically recuperated gas turbine is added.
Microturbine economics is a big question .Fuel used for microturbine gives list
of all possible fuel to be used. Manufacturers and availability of microturbine
is one important discussed point. Application gives idea about customer range,
customer targeted stand by power, hybrid
electric vehicles, CHP operation, etc. At the end conclusion is drawn
for the feasibility study of microturbine </div>
<div style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></b><b> </b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">TECHNOLOGY DISCRIPTION OF MICROTURBINES</span></b></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">2</i>.1 Basic Processes</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Microturbines are small gas turbines,
most of which feature an internal heat exchanger called a recuperator. In a microturbine, a radial
flow (centrifugal) compressor compresses the inlet air that is then preheated
in the recuperator using heat from the turbine exhaust. Next, the heated air
from the recuperator mixes with fuel in the combustor and hot combustion gas
expands through the expansion and power turbines. The expansion turbine turns
the compressor and, in single shaft models, turns the generator as well.
Two-shaft models use the compressor drive turbine’s exhaust to power a second
turbine that drives the generator. Finally, the recuperator uses the exhaust of
the power turbine to preheat the air from the compressor. Single-shaft models generally
operate at speeds over 60,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) and generate
electrical power of high frequency, and of variable frequency (alternating
current --AC). This power is rectified
to direct current (DC) and then inverted to 60 hertz (Hz) for U.S. commercial
use. In the two-shaft version, the power turbine connects via a gearbox to a
generator that produces power at 60 Hz. Some manufacturers offer units
producing 50 Hz for use in countries where 50 Hz is standard, such as in Europe and parts of Asia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.2 Thermodynamic Cycle</b></div>
<div style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-element: para-border-div; padding: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: 150%; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Microturbines operate on the same
thermodynamic cycle, known as the Brayton cycle, as larger gas turbines. In
this cycle, atmospheric air is compressed, heated, and then expanded, with the
excess power produced by the expander (also called the turbine) over that
consumed by the compressor used for power generation. The power produced by an
expansion turbine and consumed by a compressor is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas passing through those devices. Consequently, it is
advantageous to operate the expansion turbine at the highest practical
temperature consistent with economic materials and to operate the compressor with inlet airflow at as low a
temperature as possible. Higher temperature and pressure ratios result in
higher efficiency and specific power. Thus, the general trend in gas turbine
advancement has been towards a combination of higher temperatures and
pressures. However, microturbine inlet temperatures are generally limited to
1,800ºF or below the use of relatively inexpensive materials for the turbine
wheel, and to maintain pressure ratios at a comparatively low 3.5 to 4.0.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="border: none; line-height: 150%; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 1.0pt 0in; padding: 0in; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b><i>2.3 Basic Components</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.3.1 Turbo-Compressor Package</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> The
basic components of a microturbine are the compressor, turbine generator, and
recuperator </span><i><span style="font-family: "Times-Italic","serif";"> </span></i><b><span style="font-family: "Times-Bold","serif";">Figure 2.3.1</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">. The heart of the
microturbine is the compressor-turbine package, which is commonly mounted on a
single shaft along with the electric generator. Two bearings support the single
shaft. The single moving part of the one-shaft design has the potential for
reducing maintenance needs and enhancing overall reliability. There are also
two-shaft versions, in which the turbine on the first shaft directly drives the
compressor while a power turbine on the second shaft drives a gearbox and
conventional electrical generator producing 60 Hz power. The two shaft design
features more moving parts but does not require complicated power electronics
to convert high frequency AC power output to 60 Hz. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times-Bold","serif";"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Moderate
to large-size gas turbines use multi-stage axial flow turbines and compressors,
in which the gas flows along the axis of the shaft and is compressed and expanded
in multiple stages. However, microturbine turbo machinery is based on
single-stage radial flow compressor and turbines. </span><span style="color: black;">Rotary vane and scroll compression are the most commonly
used technology in the microturbine industry.</span><span style="color: red;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Second generation gas compressor technologies are in
development or being introduced. That may reduce costs and target on-board
application Rotary vane compression technology offers a wide range of gaseous
fuel flexibility</span><span style="color: red;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Parasitic
loads vary based on type of gas and inlet
pressures available, general rule 4 to 6% for natural gas and 10 to 15%
for bio gas.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.3.2 Generator</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> The microturbine produces
electrical power either via a high-speed generator turning on the single
turbo-compressor shaft or with a separate power turbine driving a gearbox and
conventional 3,600 rpm generator. The high-speed generator of the single-shaft
design employs a permanent magnet (typically Samarium-Cobalt) alternator, and
requires that the high frequency AC output (about 1,600 Hz for a 30 kW machine)
be converted to 60 Hz for general use. This power conditioning involves
rectifying the high frequency AC to DC, and then inverting the DC to 60 Hz AC.
Power conversion comes with an efficiency penalty (approximately five
percent).To start-up a single shaft design, the generator acts as a motor </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">turning the turbo-compressor shaft until
sufficient rpm is reached to start the combustor. Full start-up requires
several minutes. If the system is operating independent of the grid (black
starting), a power storage unit (typically a battery UPS) is used to power the
generator for start-up.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.3.3 Recuperators</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Recuperators are heat
exchangers that use the hot turbine exhaust gas (typically around 1,200ºF) to
preheat the compressed air (typically around 300ºF) going into the combustor,
there by reducing the fuel needed to heat the compressed air to turbine inlet
temperature. Depending on microturbine operating parameters, recuperators can
more than double machine efficiency. However, since there is increased pressure
drop in both the compressed air and turbine exhaust sides of the recuperator,
power output typically declines 10 to 15% from that attainable without the
recuperator. Recuperators also lower the temperature of the microturbine
exhaust, reducing the micro turbine’s effectiveness in CHP applications.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.3.5 Air bearings</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> They allow the turbine to spin
on a thin layer of air, so friction is low and rpm is high. No oil or oil pump
is needed. Air bearings offer simplicity of operation without the cost,
reliability concerns, maintenance requirements, or power drain of an oil supply
and filtering system. Concern does exist for the reliability of air bearings
under numerous and repeated starts due to metal on metal friction during
startup, shutdown, and load changes. Reliability depends largely on individual
manufacturers' quality control methodology more than on design engineering, and
will only be proven after significant experience with substantial numbers of
units with long numbers of operating
hours and on/off cycles.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.3.6 Power Electronics</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">.
The high frequency AC is rectified to DC, inverted back to 60 or 50 Hz
AC, and then filtered to reduce harmonic distortion.. To allow for transients
and voltage spikes, power electronics designs are generally able to handle
seven times the nominal voltage. Most icroturbine power electronics are
generating three phase electricity. Electronic components also direct all of
the operating and startup functions. </span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times-BoldItalic","serif";"> FIG 2.3.1 MICROTURBINE BASED CHP SYSTEM ( SINGLE
SHAFT )</span></b></div>
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<b>FIG 2.3.2
BASIC PARTS OF MICROTURBINE</b></div>
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<b>FIG 2.3.3 MICROTURBINE CONSTRUCTION</b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Chapter 3</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Design Characteristics 0f microturbines</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Thermal
output: Microturbines produce thermal output at temperatures in the
400 to 600°F range, suitable for supplying a variety of building thermal needs.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> </span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Fuel
flexibility</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">:
Microturbines can operate using a number of different fuels: </span><span style="font-family: "Times-BoldItalic","serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Sour gases
(high sulfur, low Btu content), and liquid fuels such </span><span style="font-family: "Times-BoldItalic","serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">
as
gasoline, kerosene, natural gas and diesel fuel/heating oil.</span><span style="font-family: "Times-BoldItalic","serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Life </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Design life is estimated
to be in the 40,000 to 80,000 hour range. </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Size range</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">: Microturbines available and under
development are sized
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">
From 25 to 350 KW</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Emissions</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">: Low inlet temperatures and high
fuel-to-air ratios result in NO</span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; font-size: 8pt; line-height: 150%;">x </span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">
Emissions of less than 10 parts per million (ppm) when </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">
Running on natural gas
</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Modularity:</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> Units may be connected in parallel
to serve larger loads and </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">
Provide power reliability </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";"> </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">Dimensions</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif";">: About 12 cubic feet. </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt;">Chapter 4</span></b></div>
</div>
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<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 150%;">Microturbines and
distributed generation</span></div>
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<span lang="EN-GB"> Distributed generation, a concept first
promoted by Thomas Edison in the 19<sup>th</sup> century, is rewiring the way
facility. Operators and environmental mangers think about how electric power
can be produced and distributed. For decades, energy users have waited for the
promise of fuel cells, solar panels, and wind turbines to translate into
reliable and economically viable sources of power. The table shown below
compares the microturbines with other D.G.
resources. Microturbines are quietly delivering on those promises and
proving to be a supplement to traditional forms of power generation. Moving away from 100% dependence on the
utility power grid to having an onsite microturbine power supplement is,
admittedly, a Para diagram shift. But for
progressive environment mangers worldwide, microturbines are quickly becoming
an energy management solution that saves money, resources, and the environment
in one compact and scalable package- is it stationary or mobile, remote or
interconnected with the utility
</span></div>
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<div align="center" class="subheading" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;">Chapter 5</span></div>
<div align="center" class="subheading" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt;">Economics of
Microturbines[</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: .1in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Micro
turbine capital costs range from $700-$1,100/kW. These costs include all
hardware, associated manuals, software, and initial training. Adding heat
recovery increases the cost by $75-$350/kW. Installation costs vary
significantly by location but generally add 30-50% to the total installed cost.
Micro turbine manufacturers are targeting a future cost below $650/kW. This
appears to be feasible if the market expands and sales volumes increase. </span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; margin-right: .1in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> With fewer
moving parts, micro turbine vendors hope the units can provide higher
reliability than conventional reciprocating generating technologies.
Manufacturers expect that initial units will require more unexpected visits,
but as the products mature, a once-a-year maintenance schedule should suffice.
Most manufacturers are targeting maintenance intervals of 5,000-8,000 hours.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Maintenance
costs for micro turbine units are still based on forecasts with minimal
real-life situations. Estimates range from $0.005-$0.016 per kWh, which would be
comparable to that for small reciprocating engine systems.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;">Micro turbine Cost</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black;">Capital
Cost</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">$700-$1,100/kW</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">O&M
Cost</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">$0.005-0.016/kW</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">Maintenance
Interval</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">5,000-8,000
hrs</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt;">Chapter 6</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;">Fuel Flexibility of microturbines[2][3]</span></b><i><span style="color: #004000; font-family: "MS Serif","serif"; font-size: 16pt;"></span></i></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "MS Serif","serif";"> Microturbines are small
power plants operate on natural gas, diesel, gasoline or other similar
high-energy, fossil fuel. However, research is progressing on using lower
grade; lower energy fuels such as gas produced from biomass to power the
microturbine. This gas, called biogas, is a combustible gas derived from
decomposing biological wastes that have undergone conversion by biological
decomposition called anaerobic digestion or by thermal decomposition in a
gasifier which is called pyrolysis.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "MS Serif","serif";">In a forest, a gasifier could be used to
convert wood chips and pine needles to a biogas on site. By making
modifications, the turbine will be able to utilize low pressure fuels with
lower energy content than traditional fuels. Natural gas-fired turbines have
fuel with a heating value of 1,000 British thermal units per cubic foot.
Biogases typically have between 10 and 20 percent of the heating value of
fossil fuels. The thrust of current research is concentrated on fuel
flexibility. The goal is to modify microturbines so they can utilize low
energy, low pressure biogases. In order to do this, a key change is to add a
catalytic combustor. An added benefit of the catalytic combustor is that it
will eliminate the formation of nitrogen oxides, a technology breakthrough.
These modified microturbines have been nicknamed "Flex-microturbines".</span><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Chapter
7</span></div>
</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> MIROTURBINES
TEST PROCEDURE & INSTALLATION </span></b></div>
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<b>7.1 Test Procedures [3]</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> To fully evaluate the MTGs, a
series of tests were developed. Testing of MTGs has been categorized into the following phases:</span></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Installation and Startup.</span></li>
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<b> </b></div>
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<b>7.2 Installation and Startup Procedures</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> Each MTG
delivered to the test site was inspected and confirmed to include:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Operating
instructions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Repair
parts or a recommended spare parts list.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Consumable
supplies.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Troubleshooting
and maintenance procedures/guides.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;">Drawings
and diagrams sufficient to support maintenance.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial-BoldMT","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
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<b>7.3 Performance Procedure</b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "BookAntiqua","serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 150%;"> For the test program, MTGs were operated
for as long as practicable at the full load the units were capable of producing
under ambient conditions. Daily operating parameters: fuel flow, ambient air
pressure, temperature and humidity, energy output, operating temperatures, and
pressures were recorded. The recorded MTG parameters were used to determine
heat rate and efficiency, gross and net
peak kilowatts, operating hours, capacity factor and availability. Capacity
factor for an operating period is the ratio of the actual kilowatt hours
generated to the maximum potential kilowatt hours for the rating of the unit.
Availability for an operating period is the ratio of the hours the unit was not
restricted from operation due to maintenance or repairs unit to the maximum
possible hours of operation. Peak gross power is defined as the peak power
output by the MTG inverter. </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 14pt;">
</span></b><span style="font-size: 16pt;">Chapter 8</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: blue; font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Development of Chemically Recuperated
Micro gas turbine [1] <span style="color: blue;"></span></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">outline of the
chemically Recuperated Gas Turbine (CRGT) System</b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Figure 8.1</b> shows a block diagram of a
CRGT system. In an MGT system, turbine exhaust temperature is about 600°C, and
the power generation efficiency is increased by heat recovery of air
recuperator, but in CRGT system, the reformer recovers the turbine heat first.
As shown in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fig. 8.1</b> .The equipment
after the reformer is the air recuperator, and next is the evaporator, but the
system works if sequence of lie equipment after the reformer is arranged in
accordance with layout of the engine system of micro gas turbines The amount
of heat recovered by the reformer is
determined by enthalpy change of chemical reaction which converts fuel and
steam into hydrogen rich gas. The principal reactions in a reformer are
expressed as follows:</div>
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<span style="font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>The reaction rate of water gas
shift is larger than that of steam reforming, and it is regarded as
equilibrium. Thus, the molar stoicometric ratio between methane and steam
(i.e., steam carbon ratio, SIC) in the above reactions is 2.0, but SI\C is
operated from 3 to 4 in order to avoid deposition of carbon by Boudouard’s
reaction expressed as follows:</div>
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The steam reforming
reaction occurs partially below 600°C, methane of 100% is not converted into
hydrogen-rich gas. The maximum conversion of methane is limited
thermodynamically, which is influenced
by physical conditions: temperature T, total pressure P. and SI\C For example, equilibrium conversion is about
35% under the conditions of ‘I’ 500°C, P=0.4 MPa, and S/C = 4.0. The reaction
pressure P in the reformer is higher than that in the combustor and it ranges
between 0.3 and 0.5 Mpa. The more temperature or S/C increases, the more
equilibrium conversion increases. Therefore, it is preferable that temperature
and SIC in the reformer are set high to enlarge heat recovery. </div>
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However, configurations of the
gas turbine and the evaporator restrict the amount of steam, and S/C has an
upper limit. In the gas turbine, surge limit of the compressor determines the
maximum flow rate including steam through the turbine. In the evaporator, the
upper limit of steam generation is
determined because the pinch point temperature difference becomes critical.
Hence, the maximum S/C is set to approximately 7 Besides, the temperature in
the reformer is influenced by the
configuration of the reformer because the reaction occurs in the reformer
exchanging heat with turbine exhaust. Hence, the design of the reformer is very
important</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Figure
8.1</b> shows the principal stream conditions of a chemically recuperated MGT
based on a commercial 75 kW MTG system using natural gas as fuel. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Figure8.2</b> shows a schematic
illustration of heat balance in the system .<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Figure 8.2</b> also shows each energy percentage of natural gas LHV
(lower heating value) .. In the system shown in <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fig. 8.1,</b> as much steam possible is generated to enlarge heat
recovery by large conversion and S/C is set to 6.3. The heat duty of the
reformer is estimated considering reactions as equilibrium, and the reformer
uses exhaust heat from 656°C to 561°C. The mole fraction of hydrogen is the
reformer output is 24%, and the conversion rises to 51%. The heat recovery at
the reformer is 82.4 kW, which recovers 25.6% of fuel LHV. The air recuperator is placed after reformer and it
heats compressed air until 520°C using exhaust heat from 561°C to 274°C. This
recovers 40.5 kW. The evaporator uses the bottom of exhaust heat from 274°C to
121°C. According to this system analysis, the output and the efficiency were
expected to improve up to 98 kW and 30.4%, respectively, comparing with 75 kW
and 28% of the original MGT.</div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fig 8.1 The principle stream conditions for
CRGT</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span>system </b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> Fig 8.2 heat balance in CRGT
system expressed as % of natural gas LHV</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Chapter 9</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Applications
of Microturbines [4]</span></b></div>
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<b>Combined
heat and power (co-generation) (chp)</b><br />
Waste heat from the microturbine can be
transferred via a heat exchanger to produce steam or provide hot water for
local area. The hot water can be used in a greenhouse to grow plants; water can
be ducted to provide central heating in buildings in winter. Thermal hosts can
be found easier because the heat produced by each microturbine unit is so much
smaller than that by a large power station.</div>
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<b>Distributed power generation</b><br />
Hospitals, hotels, factories and holiday resorts can install distributed power
systems on site to supplement power supplied by grid. Also, electricity can be
generated at remote sites without grid access. Distributed generation provides
a wide range of services to consumers and utilities, including standby
generation, peak shaving capability, baseload generation and co-generation.</div>
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<b>Hybrid (microturbine connected to high
speed alternator):[4]</b><br />
In hybrid vehicle applications, the
power produced by a microturbine is converted into electricity by a high-speed
alternator. The power is used to drive electric motors connected to the wheels. Any excess energy is directed to
an energy storage system such as batteries or flywheels. </div>
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<b>Hybrid
vehicle (microturbine and fuel)</b>:</div>
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<b> </b> Hybrid systems take advantage of an increase
in fuel cell efficiency with an increase in operating pressure. The microturbine
compressor stage is used to provide this pressure. The fuel cell produces heat
along with power, and this heat energy is used to drive the microturbine’s
turbine stage. If the fuel cell produces enough heat, the microturbine can
generate additional wer. For the hybrid combination, efficiency is expected to
be as much as 60% and emissions less than 1.0 ppm NOx, with negligible Sox and
other pollutants.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt;">Chapter 10</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 16pt;">Conclusion</span></b></div>
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</div>
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The drawbacks of centralized power generation and shortage of power
leading to concept of Distributed generation (DG).DG tends to several
advantages and concept of DG is more feasible. Microturbine is the application
of DG .The history of IC engine . Shows several year research works for today<span style="font-family: Symbol;"></span>s better result. Therefore microturbine is
tomorrow<span style="font-family: Symbol;"></span>s world. Microturbine can use low grade of
fuel very effectively like waste gases, sour gases etc.</div>
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Thus
microturbine gives chance of low fuel cost and less emission. The dimensions of
Microturbine comparatively small by which it can be installed at field where
power is consumed. It has few efficiency problems. Due to chemical recuperation
the thermal efficiency increases sharply. Microturbine is also effective in CHP
operation .It is having problem of Starting time and that<span style="font-family: Symbol;"></span>s why it fails as standby power generator
compared to IC engines. In India
the microturbine is quite useful. The power shortage effect can be solved using
microturbine, using fuels like biogas, etc .But in India the technology is still
underdevelopment so the present seminar is an honest attempt to introduce
microturbine technology in India
for solving the problem of power generation in future. </div>
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Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-24278948037559155432011-09-29T18:43:00.002+05:302011-10-03T12:39:56.347+05:30A NEW CONCEPT OF I.C. ENGINE WITH HOMOGENOUS COMBUSTION IN POROUS MEDIUM<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-size: 16pt;"> Abstract</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">At present, the emissions of
internal combustion engines can only be improved by catalytic treatments of the
exhaust gases. Such treatments, however, result in high costs and relatively
low conversion efficiency. This suggests that a new combustion technique should
be developed to yield improved primary combustion processes inside the engine
with drastically reduced exhaust gas emissions. In this paper,. We report on such
a technique that is applicable to direct injection, internal combustion
engines, either diesel or gasoline fuelled. This technique is based on the
porous-medium (PM) combustion technology previously developed in the laboratory
for steady state household and industrial combustion processes. It is shown
that the PM combustion technique can be applied to internal combustion engines,
i.e. it is demonstrated that improvements obtained in steady state combustion
are also realizable in unsteady combustion processes. Theoretical
considerations are presented for internal combustion engines, indicating that
an overall improvement in thermal efficiency can be achieved for the PM engine.
This is explained and the general performance of the new PM engine is
demonstrated for a single-cylinder, air-cooled, direct injection diesel engine.
Verification experiments are described that were carried out as part of the
present study. Initial results are presented and an outlook is given on how the
present developments might continue in the future. </span></div>
<br />
<h3 style="margin-top: .2in;">
Introduction<span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Gradually came the days
when man started imagining huge & started striving for bringing his
imagination to the day of light Today after having reached such heights of
advancement we the human beings are still in thirst of technology indeed very
desperately. One such field for current discussion and interest of brilliant
brains is that how we developed such a engine which would give non-zero
emission and as well as less fuel consumption to with stand under wild range of
speed and load? the answer to this
question is homogeneous combustion in I.C. engine using porous medium
Technology.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The process of mixture
formation, ignition & combustion in conventional engine is not effective
due to the lack of mechanisms for homogenous combustion process.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Two parameters will be
required for future internal combustion engine i.e. non-zero emission level
& low fuel consumption. These parameter is strongly dependant the process
of mixture formation & combustion which are difficult to controlled in a
conventional engine combustion system. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-top: .2in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The question is remain
unsolved is the method for realization of homogenous combustion in IC engine,
specially if the variable engine operational conditions are considered. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> So here porous medium
concept is introduced in order to overcome above difficulty. PM utilize the
special features of highly porous media to support and controlled the mixture
formation and combustion process in IC engine. </span></div>
<h2>
Main requirements for future engine<span style="font-family: "Arial Black","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt;"></span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Basic requirements for
future clean internal combustion (I.C.) engine concern very low that is exhaust
emissions level for both gaseous and particulate matter components under as low
as possible fuel consumption. Internal combustion engine has to operate in a
wide range of speeds and loads and should satisfy selected requirements under
all operational conditions. For vehicle application, the following conditions
are required for future engine:</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Operation with a
homogeneous stoichiometric charge for high power density Operation with a homogeneous-lean charge for
low specific fuel consumption </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Realization of
homogeneous combustion, for all mixture compositions for the lowest combustion
emissions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> For significant
reduction of specific fuel consumption and for a near-zero combustion emissions
especially attractive would be realization of engine operating with a
lean-homogeneous charge at part loads, assuming that the combustion process is
homogeneous. </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;"> HOMOGENEOUS COMBUSTION</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Homogeneous combustion in an
IC engine is defined as a process characterized by a 3D-ignition of the
homogeneous charge with simultaneous-volumetric-combustion, hence, ensuring a
homogeneous temperature field. According to the definition given above, three
steps of the mixture formation and combustion may be selected that define the
ability of a given combustion system to operate as a homogeneous combustion
system </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The PM has homogeneous
surface temperature over the most of the PM-volume, higher than the ignition
temperature. In this case the PM-volume defines the combustion chamber volume.
Thermodynamically speaking, the porous medium is here characterized by a high
heat capacity and by a large specific surface area. As a model, we could
consider the 3D-structure of the porous medium as a large number of “hot spots”
homogeneously distributed throughout the combustion chamber volume. Because of
this feature a thermally controlled 3D-ignition can be achieved. Additionally,
the porous medium controls the temperature level of the combustion chamber
permitting the NOx level control almost independently of the engine load or of
the (A/F) ratio</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;">POROUS MEDIUM (PM) TECHNOLOGY </span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span>
</div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The porous medium
technology for IC engines means here the utilization of specific features of a
highly porous media for supporting and controlling the mixture formation and
combustion processes in I.C. engines. The employed specific features of PM are
directly related to a very effective heat transfer and very fast flame
propagation within the PM. close view of a magnified 3D-structure of SiC
ceramic foam is given in Figure</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span><span style="color: black; font-size: 12pt;">Generally, the most important parameters of PM for application to engine
combustion technology can be given as follows: heat capacity, specific surface
area, heat transport properties, transparency for fluid flow, spray and flame
propagation, pore sizes, pore density, pore structure, thermal resistance of
the material, mechanical resistance and mechanical properties under heating and
cooling conditions, PM material surface properties. For IC engine application,
the thermal resistance of the porous medium is one of the most important
parameter defining its applicability of a given material to combustion in
engine. A view of the thermal test of SiC-reactors for engine application is
shown in Fig.</span><br />
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;">New concept of mixture preparation
for homogeneous combustion in engines using porous medium technology</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span>
</div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Different R&D
activities of the author using porous materials (highly porous 3D-structures)
(see LSTM at University of Erlangen-Nürnberg and Promos GmbH in Erlangen)
indicated unique features of this technology for mixture formation and
combustion processes, also as applied to IC engines.</span><br />
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Energy recirculation in engine cycle</span>
in the form of hot burned gases recirculation or combustion energy:-</b> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">This
may significantly influence thermodynamic properties of the charge in the
cylinder and may control its ignitability (activity). This energy recirculation
may be performed under different pressures and temperatures during the engine
cycle. Additionally, this heat recuperation may be used for controlling the
combustion temperature level. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Fuel injection in PM-volume:-</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Especially
unique features of liquid jet distribution and homogenization throughout the
PM-volume </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.5pt;"></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Fuel vaporization in PM-volume:-</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cmbination
of large heat capacity of the PM-material, large specific surface area with
excellent heat transfer in PM volume make the liquid fuel vaporization very
fast and complete.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Mixing and homogenization in PM-volume:-</span></b><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Unique
features of the flow properties inside 3D-structures allow very effective
mixing and homogenization in PM-volume.</span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">3D-thermal-PM-ignition:-</b> </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">(if PM temperature is at least
equal to ignition temperature under certain thermodynamic properties and
mixture composition): there is a new kind of ignition, especially effective if
the PM-volume creates the combustion chamber volume. </span><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 14pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Heat release in PM-volume:-</b></span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Under controlled combustion
temperature that permits homogeneous combustion conditions almost independently
of the engine load with possibility of controlling the combustion temperature
level. </span></div>
<h3>
PRINCIPLE OF THE PM-ENGINE </h3>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The
PM-engine is here defined as an internal combustion engine with the following
processes realized in a porous medium: internal heat recuperation, fuel
injection, fuel vaporization, mixing with air, homogenization of charge,
3D-thermal self-ignition followed by a homogeneous combustion. PM-Engine may be
classified with respect to the heat recuperation. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> One of the most
interesting features of PM-engine is its multifuel performance. Independently
of the fuel used, this engine is a self-ignition engine characterized by its
3D-thermal ignition in porous medium. Finally, the PM-engine concept may be
applied to both two- and four-stroke cycles. Owing to the differences in
thermodynamic conditions, the PM-engine cycle has to be separately analyzed for
closed and open chambers</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">PM-engine with closed chamber </span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Let us start an analysis
of the PM-engine cycle with a case of closed PM chamber, i.e. engine with a
periodic contact between working gas and PM-heat recuperator. At the end of the
expansion stroke the valve controlling timing of the PM-chamber closes and fuel
is injected in the PM-volume. This volume represents in thermodynamic sense a
low pressure chamber and a long time is available for fuel injection and its
vaporization in the PM. These processes may continue through exhaust, intake
and compression strokes (see Fig.) </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Near the TDC of compression the valve in PM-chamber opens and the compressed
air flows from the cylinder into the hot PM volume containing fuel vaporous.
Very fast mixing of the gaseous charge occurs and the resulting mixture is
ignited in the whole PM volume. The resulting heat release process performs
simultaneously in the whole PM volume. The three essential conditions for a
homogeneous combustion are here fulfilled: homogenization of charge in
PM-volume, 3D-thermal self-ignition in PM and volumetric combustion with a
homogeneous temperature field in PM-volume. Additionally, the PM-material deals
as a heat capacitor and, hence, controls the combustion temperature. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;"> Advantages of PM Technology</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">1)</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Very low emissions level due
to homogeneous combustion and controlled temperature in the PM-combustion
zone (e.g. NOx between 100 and 300mg/kWh for the (A/F) ratio from 1 to 5;. CO
can be reduced by several times; (almost) eliminated soot formation). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> 2)
</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Theoretically higher cycle efficiency due to similarity to the Carnot
cycle. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> 3)
</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Very low combustion noise due to significantly reduced pressure peaks.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">4) </span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Nearly constant and
homogeneous combustion temperature field in the PM- volume. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> 5)
</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Very fast combustion. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> 6)
</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Multi-fuel system.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: .1in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">7) </span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">May operate with homogeneous
charge: from stoichiometric to very lean mixture compositions. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> 8)
</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Weak effect of in-cylinder flow structure, turbulence or spray
atomization </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 16pt;"> Conclusion</span></b><span style="font-size: 12pt;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 25.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> There is no doubt that
the future of internal combustion engine is related to the homogeneous
combustion process in a wide range of engine operational conditions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText3">
This technique shows potential for a near-zero combustion
emissions (especially NOx and soot) as well as high cycle efficiency (low fuel
consumption). Moreover, this kind of combustion system is less fuel specific.
However, the realization of homogeneous combustion in IC engine under variable
loads and speeds will probably require new concepts for mixture formation and
controlled ignition conditions under different engine loads. The future engine
operating with a homogeneous combustion process in a wide range of load and
speed will require variable temperature history during the compression stroke,
variable TDC compression temperature, completely vaporized fuel prior the
ignition process, variable mixture composition (A/F ratio), variable reactivity
(ignitability) of the charge, homogeneity of the charge, volumetric ignition
conditions, variable heat capacity of the cylinder content. But the research
has been carried out to make this process more & more economical.</div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com8tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-1235041424886413282011-09-28T12:28:00.002+05:302011-10-03T12:40:28.285+05:30Anti locking brake system<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Abstract </span></u></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
this fast moving world of ours, thing seem to get faster & faster day by
day. Same is the case with the most common means of conveyance-cars. Every day
novel technologies are developed to help the cars become more & more
powerful implying that they carry more &more load at greater & greater
velocities.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However it is not enough to create machines that help you move fast, it
is equally important that they should stop just as quickly as the move. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">This paper take an overview of a cutting
edge technology developed in the form of ‘anti locking brakes (ABS)’.</b>This
new electronic brake assistance system aims at reducing the hazards of sudden
retardation from high speeds. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It
attempts to study one of the promising new age technology which assures safety
for the new age fast moving automobile. </div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Introduction</span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: black;">
The basic function of any braking system in an automobile is to help the
vehicle stop whenever & wherever required. Followingfigure shows the
various components of a general brake system:</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwpAtoJXsuPwXB8m-qzJXXnxF3DiaZ3YkkWufn7U7pvsB4EeVAQDd_Phnz_XIJIGzLwueSAoIFDkTDGoH6cnTpARXjeZPOVrQkuvllNTN7ifvddk0sjVv3PgXJ71oxdbICGXwga-soFsCk/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwpAtoJXsuPwXB8m-qzJXXnxF3DiaZ3YkkWufn7U7pvsB4EeVAQDd_Phnz_XIJIGzLwueSAoIFDkTDGoH6cnTpARXjeZPOVrQkuvllNTN7ifvddk0sjVv3PgXJ71oxdbICGXwga-soFsCk/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<span style="color: black;">
Following are the different type of brakes that have been used over the
years for this purpose:</span><br />
<span style="color: black;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1] Disc brakes</b></span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The
main components of a disc brake are: </span><br />
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <b>brake pads</b> </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <b>caliper</b>, which
contains a piston </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">The <b>rotor</b>, which is
mounted to the hub </span></li>
</ul>
<span style="color: black;">
The disc brake is a lot like the brakes on a bicycle. Bicycle brakes
have a caliper, which squeezes the brake pads against the wheel. In a disc
brake, the brake pads squeeze the <b>rotor</b> instead of the wheel, and the
force is transmitted hydraulically
instead of through a cable. Friction
between the pads and the disc slows the disc down. </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaMp1B1lViT4zFfGh-E_PWiiwKHul1tCbcJa1_-pikkeVc_fKcNvV8Zb-kuxK3D5WT3Vwz_4FIzuDxAP83D05AOdm-dMiIVSarXwgszTz-hnjPOs8lHk3mSALy-ljYTFXEBfCflGipBpXK/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="120" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjaMp1B1lViT4zFfGh-E_PWiiwKHul1tCbcJa1_-pikkeVc_fKcNvV8Zb-kuxK3D5WT3Vwz_4FIzuDxAP83D05AOdm-dMiIVSarXwgszTz-hnjPOs8lHk3mSALy-ljYTFXEBfCflGipBpXK/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;"><br /></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">2] Drum
brakes: </span></b><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Like
the disc brake, the drum brake has two brake shoes and a piston. But the drum
brake also has an <b>adjuster</b> mechanism, an <b>emergency brake</b>
mechanism and <b>springs</b>. </span><br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5yhZRqFB_BjHSCyE-HYZGpnojRI2u2gqunpH3bFY3KdjChiPZFUS7G52lFqcQ-VmitWzAU8VYG_qOhfi_UAxpQ4oDcv9DkBFZCChsHZRNn-eeLdKwod8wVhDwVj5Xc5EqfbqEqH06PpMg/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="116" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg5yhZRqFB_BjHSCyE-HYZGpnojRI2u2gqunpH3bFY3KdjChiPZFUS7G52lFqcQ-VmitWzAU8VYG_qOhfi_UAxpQ4oDcv9DkBFZCChsHZRNn-eeLdKwod8wVhDwVj5Xc5EqfbqEqH06PpMg/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9pt;"><br /></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;"></span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> As the brake shoes contact the drum,
there is a kind of wedging action, which has the effect of pressing the shoes
into the drum with more force. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;"> The extra braking force provided
by the wedging action allows drum brakes to use a smaller piston than disc
brakes. But, because of the wedging action, the shoes must be pulled away from
the drum when the brakes are released. This is the reason for some of the
springs. Other springs help hold the brake shoes in place and return the
adjuster arm after it actuates. </span><br />
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">The ABS concept:</span></u></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="articlebody1"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"> ABS is an
acronym for anti-lock braking system, one of the most significant safety
advances in automotive engineering in recent decades. First developed and
patented in 1936, ABS is actually derived from the German term
"antiblockiersystem."</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="articlebody1"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;">The theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. A <b>skidding wheel</b>
(where the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less <b>traction</b>
than a non-skidding wheel. If one is stuck on ice, one knows that if the wheels
are spinning he has no traction. This is because the contact patch is sliding
relative to the ice. By keeping the wheels from skidding while the vehicle
slows down, anti-lock breaks benefits in two ways: the vehicle stops faster,
and the user will be able to steer while he stops. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
ABS
can improve vehicle stability, steerability and stopping capability. Four-wheel
ABS prevents wheel lock-up, allowing drivers to maintain stability as well as
steering control during an emergency braking situation. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> When
a driver operating a four-wheel ABS equipped vehicle steps firmly on the brake
pedal, the system automatically modulates the brake pressure at all four
wheels, adjusting pressure to each wheel independently to prevent wheel
lock-up. With four-wheel ABS, the driver has improved steering control of the
vehicle. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">The need for ABS</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
When the rear wheels<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> </span></u></b>of
a vehicle lose traction, oversteer can occur. When the front wheels lose
traction, it's called understeer. Either way, the driver can lose the ability
to turn the car along the intended path.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgv03bgV_WEdGJfl_HxSWn-dV8DM0vIS0iTpwJZVqL32m0Lj9I9QIAL8a3pL-XCnRbCXBA1TUkIFWnLsrdIsZi82ehM2BP2cuHlHnch0d8qbBqaNqngg2QiE89ar8LskBcDth9iEnKoIC0F/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgv03bgV_WEdGJfl_HxSWn-dV8DM0vIS0iTpwJZVqL32m0Lj9I9QIAL8a3pL-XCnRbCXBA1TUkIFWnLsrdIsZi82ehM2BP2cuHlHnch0d8qbBqaNqngg2QiE89ar8LskBcDth9iEnKoIC0F/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
When sensors in intelligent
stability and handling systems detect oversteer is imminent, the outside front
wheel brake is automatically applied to prevent loss of control. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
Likewise, when the sensors detect
understeer is about to occur, they automatically brake the inside rear wheel,
helping the driver make the turn and continue forward in the right direction.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></span></u></b><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span>Components of ABS:</span></u></b></div>
<table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="margin-left: 6.75pt; margin-right: 6.75pt; width: 226px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 141.75pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="height: 141.75pt; padding: 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt 2.25pt;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-left: right; mso-element-top: 50.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"></span><span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"><br />
</span><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Anti-lock brake pump and
valves</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-element-anchor-horizontal: margin; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-left: right; mso-element-top: 50.9pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
There
are four main components to an ABS </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
system: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgePZr077c1XI1MyfzJBBAVvjvRy1mQTNCo-p2_dXZG9lG8qgJgb3TxbeHqQrwhL9Az0J2nH24HJI0KwV7diCyuqCYDQSi0tnO7RRJNs463Lbbt-WRryhdSrjk2JSIUelx_mbfkuD7B-g78/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="173" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgePZr077c1XI1MyfzJBBAVvjvRy1mQTNCo-p2_dXZG9lG8qgJgb3TxbeHqQrwhL9Az0J2nH24HJI0KwV7diCyuqCYDQSi0tnO7RRJNs463Lbbt-WRryhdSrjk2JSIUelx_mbfkuD7B-g78/s200/Untitled.png" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"></span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"><br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> Speed sensors:</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"> The anti-lock braking system needs
some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up. The speed sensors, which
are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the diffrential , provide this
information.</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Valves: </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"> There is a valve in the brake line
of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has three
positions: </span><br />
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">In position one, the valve is <b>open</b>; pressure from the
master cylinder is passed right through to the brake. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">In position two, the valve <b>blocks</b> the line, isolating that
brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the pressure from rising
further should the driver push the brake pedal harder. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;">In position three, the valve <b>releases</b> some of the pressure
from the brake.</span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Pump: </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></div>
<b><span style="color: #990000; font-size: 10.5pt;"> </span></b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;">Since the valve is able to release pressure from the
brakes, there has to be some way to put that pressure back. That is what the
pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line, the pump is there to
get the pressure back up. </span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Controller:</span><br />
The controller is a computer
in the car. It watches the speed sensors and controls the valves. <br />
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Working of ABS <span style="color: black;"></span></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="articlebody1"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"> The
anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock
Brake).There are many different variations and control algorithms for ABS
systems. Here, one of the simpler systems is discussed. </span></span><span class="articlebody1"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></span></div>
<span style="color: black;">
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking
for <b>decelerations</b> in the wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right
before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration. If left
unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might
take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 kph) under ideal conditions,
but a wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second. </span><br />
<span style="color: black;">
The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible,
so it reduces the <b>pressure</b> to that brake until it sees an acceleration,
then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration again. It can do
this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The
result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes
keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This
gives the system maximum braking power. </span><br />
<span style="color: black;">
When the ABS system is in operation the user will feel a <b>pulsing</b>
in the brake pedal; this comes from the rapid opening and closing of the
valves. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 15 times per second. </span><br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">The EBD Assistance</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> The
force required at the front and rear brake pairs varies with the load carried
by the vehicle and the urgency of the stop. Front brakes handle the majority of
the action, because the vehicle’s weight shifts forward during braking. Rear
brakes require less force overall but need more when the rear of the car is
weighed down with passengers or cargo. Historically, engineers have designed
front/rear proportioning valves to hit the median for rear brakes — enough
force for some rear cargo but no so much that the wheels lock up when the car
is unladen.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<img alt="Electronic brake force distribution" height="158" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image018.jpg" width="181" /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On
cars without EBD, then the driver presses the brake pedel, the force is evenly
distributed to the four brakes. On cars with EBD, the brake force is
proportioned to each wheel based on driving conditions and availiable traction.
In an emergency straight-line braking situation, EBD would provide more brake
pressure to the front to avoid the rear brakes from locking. If the driver
brakes while steering a corner, it would control the brake forces between the
left and right wheels to help maintain stability.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Speed sensors located
on all four wheels notice that one or more wheels have locked, or may lock, during
strong braking. Instantaneously the Skid Control ECU calculates which wheels
need to be released and which braked, to avoid a skid and signals this to the
Brake Actuator. The Brake Actuator then distributes brake pressure to all four
wheels as required, enabling you to steer your car under full control. </div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span>Types of Anti-Lock Brakes</span></u></b>
</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> Anti-lock
braking systems use different schemes depending on the type of brakes in use.
We will refer to them by the number of channels -- that is, how many valves
that are individually controlled -- and the number of speed sensors. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;">• <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Four-channel, four-sensor ABS</b> - This is
the best scheme. There is a speed sensor on all four wheels and a separate
valve for all four wheels. With this setup, the controller monitors each wheel
individually to make sure it is achieving maximum braking force. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;">• <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Three-channel, three-sensor ABS</b> - This
scheme, commonly found on pickup trucks with four-wheel ABS, has a speed sensor
and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and one sensor for
both rear wheels. The speed sensor for the rear wheels is located in the rear
axle. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> This
system provides individual control of the front wheels, so they can both
achieve maximum braking force. The rear wheels, however, are monitored
together; they both have to start to lock up before the ABS will activate on
the rear. With this system, it is possible that one of the rear wheels will
lock during a stop, reducing brake effectiveness. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;">• <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">One-channel, one-sensor ABS </b>- This
system is commonly found on pickup trucks with rear-wheel ABS. It has one
valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed sensor, located in the
rear axle. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> This
system operates the same as the rear end of a three-channel system. The rear
wheels are monitored together and they both have to start to lock up before the
ABS kicks in. In this system it is also possible that one of the rear wheels
will lock, reducing brake effectiveness. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> This
system is easy to identify. Usually there will be one brake line going through
a T-fitting to both rear wheels. You can locate the speed sensor by looking for
an electrical connection near the differential on the rear-axle housing.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"> Benefits of ABS</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Traction control:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> The ABS equipment
may also be used to implement traction control on acceleration of the vehicle.
If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction with the ground, the ABS
controller can detect the situation and apply the brakes to reduce the
acceleration so that traction is regained. Manufacturers often offer this as a
separately priced option even though the infrastructure is largely shared with
ABS. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and
brakes simultaneously.</span></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Detect a
flat tire:</span></b><br />
<span style="color: black;"> An <b>ABS</b> (anti-lock braking
system) is a system that helps a driver to avoid skids during panic stops. In a
car with a normal braking system, all four wheels will lock and cause the car
to skid if the driver jams on the brakes in a panic situation. The problems
with skidding are: </span><br />
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">The car will actually
take longer to stop. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in;">The driver loses all
control of the vehicle. </li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="articlebody1"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.5pt;"> An anti-lock
braking system lets a <b>computer</b> monitor the wheels. If one of them locks,
the computer can <b>pulse</b> the brake on that wheel so that the wheel keeps
spinning. Because the wheels continue to spin, the driver can continue to
control the car with the steering wheel.
</span></span><span class="articlebody1"><span style="font-size: 10.5pt;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black;"> The
computer senses rotation using a <b>rotation sensor</b> on each wheel. If the
computer were programmed correctly and if there were a light on the dashboard,
then the computer could detect a flat tire. What the computer could do is look
at different rotational speeds for one out of the four wheels. A flat tire
would spin faster than a properly inflated tire, so the computer would look for
one tire spinning faster than the other three, on average, over the course of a
period of time. Then it could warn the driver by activating the light on the
dash.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Increase in tire
life:</span></b></div>
As the ABS prevents skidding
of the vehicle, the additional frictional wear occurring due to the braking
action in prevented from being concentrated at a single position. Locked wheels
on dry asphalt or concrete can quickly create flat spots on tires, which can
cause an annoying vibration while driving. The big advantage, however, is the
maintenance of the tire -- a significant factor in effective stopping. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Disadvantages of ABS</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Gravel and snow: </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
In
gravel and snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these surfaces,
locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from
occurring. Some ABS calibrations reduce this problem by slowing the cycling
time, thus letting the wheels repeatedly briefly lock and unlock.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN">A Finnish car magazine, Tekniikan Maailma,
tested a VW Golf V fitted with non-studded Continental ContiVikingContact 3
tires.</span><span lang="EN"></span></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-border-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-insideh: .75pt solid black; mso-border-insidev: .75pt solid black; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-yfti-tbllook: 1184;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td colspan="3" style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-diagonal-down: .75pt solid black; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
Braking distance
from 80-0 km/h:</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.5pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>locked wheels</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.5pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>ABS</b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.5pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>dry pavement</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal">
45 m</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.5pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal">
32 m</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: solid black 1.5pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>snow</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal">
53 m</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.5pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-right-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal">
64 m</div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.5pt; border-left: solid black 1.5pt; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-bottom-alt: 1.5pt; mso-border-color-alt: black; mso-border-left-alt: 1.5pt; mso-border-right-alt: .75pt; mso-border-style-alt: solid; mso-border-top-alt: .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b>ice</b></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.0pt; border-top: none; mso-border-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-bottom-alt: solid black 1.5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal">
255 m</div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid black 1.5pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid black 1.5pt; border-top: none; mso-border-left-alt: solid black .75pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid black .75pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal">
404 m</div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">Risk compensation:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN">ABS brakes are
the subject of some widely-cited experiments in support of risk compensation
theory, which support the view that drivers adapt to the safety benefit of ABS
by driving more aggressively.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN">The two major
examples are from Munich and Oslo. In both cases taxi drivers in mixed fleets
were found to exhibit greater risk-taking when driving cars equipped with ABS,
with the result that collision rates between ABS and non ABS cars were not
significantly different.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 14pt;">Conclusion</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
anti locking brake system provides us with an effective means to ensure that
our new generation automobiles become safer as they continue to get faster
& stronger.They provide the common man an opportunity to have a go at the
new age monstrous engines which can churn out loads & loads of horsepowers
just at a small movement of the toe. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">
It is a promising new concept which is catching up fast with the
automobile owners and manufacturers the world over. The anti locking brake
system certainly promises grater speeds and greater driving pleasures at lower
risk levels.</span></div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-19876840113842412972011-09-27T16:02:00.002+05:302011-10-03T12:41:05.852+05:30Next Generation 2-Stroke Engine<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoHeading8">
ABSTRACT</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Are two stroke motorbikes
poised for a comeback? With new development, they can compete with four stroke
in emission cleanliness, full economy & rideability while retaining power,
size & weight advantages. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Now days this is the age of
four-stroke engme. Because of its various advantageous like mileage, power and
one of the greatest advantage is that it's emission. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">And therefore it is certify that it is cleanliness
and made very low pollution. Because of this the two stroke engine is left out
from the market. All the giant companies turn towards four stroke engines. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">At this stage were there is
no demand for two stroke engine, because of the concentrated effort of an
Australian base Orbital Engine Company take a giant leap, they took back two
stroke engine technology, having advantageous over four stroke engine in all
respect. And which is tie with greatest automobile companies like Peugot ,
Aprila and Bajaj also. This technology not restricted only for two-wheeler but
also use in four-wheeler like BMW& Ford also. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b> INTRODUCTION</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">When two-stroke motorbikes
comes to off road motor cross racing. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Two stroke-powered bikes have always taken the lead.
But its harmful emission forced the Environmental Protection Agency to ban them
from rallies in America.
Finally after a long wait two stroke returning to the circuit with a total
redesign of engine, its fuel injection system, & working. This was possible
due to the concentrated effort of an Australian organization, the Orbital
Engine Company that pioneered the development of direct in cylinder fuel
injection system, which reduces emission level but also increases power. In
addition the redesign of the combustion chamber & valve mechanism by Honda
& Bimota has enabled them to run the engine without spark plugs! In basic
two stroke working cycle, fuel enter the cylinder through the intake port from
one side of the cylinder & pushes spent exhaust gases out of the exhaust
port on the opposite cylinder wall at the same time. This causes the fuel to
mix with the exhaust gases. Some amount of exhaust gas invariably remains in
the cylinder as the fresh charge comes in. When spark plug ignites the fuel
mixture, some fuel is isolated from the flame by the exhaust gases still in the
cylinder Goes not bum. </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Thus two basic disadvantages arise:
incomplete combustion of fuel at low engine rpm, & expulsion at high engine
rpm. Moreover the oil injected into the motor to lubricate the crankshaft is
also bum off the combustion. This result more pollution than permissible
limits. Some new technologies have been making waves in low emission high
performance 2-stroke engine. The three different innovations competing for the
right to save future Two-stroke are direct fuel injection, exhaust trapping
valves & active radial combustion. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2">
CONVENTIONAL
TWO-STROKE ENGINE </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The air or charge is sucked
through spring loaded inlet valve when the pressure in the crankcase reduces
due to upward motion of the piston during compression stroke. After the
compression stroke, ignition & expansion takes place in the usual way.
During the expansion stroke the air in the crankcase is compressed. Near the
end of expansion stroke piston uncover the exhaust port </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">And the cylinder pressure
drops to atmospheric as the combustion products leave the cylinder. Further
motion of the piston uncovers the transfer port, permitting the slightly
compressed air or mixture in the crankcase to enter engine cylinder. This
causes the fuel to mix with the exhaust gases. Some amount of exhaust gas
invariably remains in the cylinder as the fresh charge comes in. When spark
plug ignites the fuel mixture, some fuel is isolated from the flame by the
exhaust gases still in the cylinder & does not bum. For this some provision
is done, the top of Next Generation
2-Stroke Engine the piston usually has a projection to deflect the fresh air to
sweep up to top of the cylinder before flowing to the exhaust port. This serves
the double purpose of scavenging the upper part of the cylinder of combustion
product & preventing the fresh charge from flowing directly to the exhaust
ports. The same objective can be achieved without piston deflector by proper
shaping of the transfer port. During the upward motion of the piston from BDC,
the transfer ports &then the exhaust port close & compression of the
charge begins &cycle is repeated. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">3.1</span></b><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> <b>SCAVENGING PROCESS: - </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">At the end of expansion
stroke, the combustion chamber of the two stroke engine is left full of
products of combustion. This is because, there is no exhaust stroke is
available to clear the cylinder of burnt gases. The process of clearing the
cylinder after the expansion stroke is called scavengmg. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<span id="goog_43862512"></span><span id="goog_43862513"></span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1JmqcH87RDs-bcwFVu6TTdjsXp0L_7DdEVezFThsnrjHNAhiYNfb95G-07nsI7pEuQhz2kHmNUdYYIiuxws6k347IcDzXOf3eGinYCyT8iu3CJ23Rsyqd-MhZwAMKB3q29KJuSDjM0hJ9/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1JmqcH87RDs-bcwFVu6TTdjsXp0L_7DdEVezFThsnrjHNAhiYNfb95G-07nsI7pEuQhz2kHmNUdYYIiuxws6k347IcDzXOf3eGinYCyT8iu3CJ23Rsyqd-MhZwAMKB3q29KJuSDjM0hJ9/s320/Untitled.png" width="223" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2">
4. AIR ASSISTED DIRECT INJECTION SYSTEM (ASDI) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Developed by Orbital leading
international developer of engine technologies direct in cylinder fuel
injection & lean bum system for enhanced fuel economy & lower emission.
This technology exceeds the EP A 2006 emission standards & offers 40% fuel
efficiency over conventional two stroke. Different automotive companies have
licensed & experimented with Orbital clean burning two-stroke engine &
auto major like Peugot, Aprila & other are directly installing these on
their new models. It may not take long before this technology reaches India as Bajaj
auto already has a tie-up with Orbital. This technology is not only restricted
to two wheeler but Ford, BMW and other four wheeler auto majors have used this
technology to manufacture cars powered with ASDI </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Two stroke engine which much better performance than
an equivalent four stroke engine </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">4.1 PRINCIPAL OF ASDI: - </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Compressed air is used to
assist the atomization of fuel injected directly into the combustion chamber,
(typically after the exhaust port has closed) facilitating very fine control of
air-fuel gradient around the spark plug. In addition, the air utilizes to
scavenge and clean out the cylinder of bum gases. The Honda EXP-2& Bimota 500V
uses the same technology. But it was Orbital modified Honda NSR- 125 that
sparked this new trend. A new injection system and a compressor to supply the
air for injection were the only equipment fitted. All the other parts were left
in tact. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">One of the central
components of the Orbital combustion process is the direct injector. This
injector can deliver extremely small droplets & control spray geometry
directly in cylinder. The compressor pumps in 5.5 bar of air to affect the
injection and atomization fuel at pressure, normal fuel pump can use. A
detailed schematic diagram of fuel injection system is shown in fig 2. </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The
fuel is injected into the cylinder by a compressed air assisted direct
injector. After the fuel catches the fire and power stroke is performed, the
exhaust gases are scavenged out using air only & sensor fitted make sure
that no unbunrt fuel is driven out. The fuel injection and scavenging is
controlled by an Electronic Control Unit (ECU) in response ·to engine speed and
rider demand. With the modified NSR-125 performing at par & consuming less
fuel. Orbital demonstrated that fuel system alone; independent of any
optimization of the combustion chamber can achieve the emission standard of the
future. The Honda on its EXP-2 model achieved an optimization of the combustion
process that has never happened till date in petrol engine. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText3">
5. ACTIVE RADICAL COMBUSTION </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In simple terms, auto
ignition bums up all the fuel in the cylinder. We currently associated with
engine knock, a phenomenon that occurs when the fuel ignites before the spark
plug fIres with the piston still on the up-stroke. This is caused when the
temperature & pressure in a cylinder build up to a critical point and the
air/fuel mixture explodes prematurely. Honda has tamed this pre-ignition on the
EXP-2, which otherwise destroy a normal two stroke engine. Using premature
combustion to more thoroughly bum the mixture is not a new idea- diesel don't
have spark plug either. But it is for the fIrst time that this technology has
been applied to 2-stroke petrol engine . The EXP-2 engine dose not use the
spark plug above idle and below 40% throttle. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">5.1 PRINCIPLE OF (A R C) : - </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">When fuel is brought to the
right pressure & temperature; molecule breaks down into what are known as
active radical molecules. These are highly unstable chemical compounds. Formed
as an intermediate step in the actual combustion reaction. When hot exhaust
gases remains in the cylinder the small percentage of active radical molecules
combines with the incoming fuel charge & begins to auto ignite at a lower
temperature than a pure petrol/air mixture. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The fig. 1 indicates the combustion process in a
Honda EXP-2 </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1. Fresh fuel (white) enters the combustion chamber,
pushing the exhaust (gray) out the open exhaust valve in opposite side of the
cylinder. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2. The incoming fuel mixes with the exhaust &
some pockets of fuel are isolated within the exhaust. The exhaust valve closes
& the compression of the mixture is increased as the piston travels
upwards. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">3. The fuel/exhaust mixture is compressed & auto
ignites as the piston reaches the top· of its stroke. This bums all the fuel,
and reduces the emission of unbent hydrocarbons into the environment. At small
throttle openings, a conventional two stroke will start a repeating pattern of
misfiring, which allows a large amount of unbent gas and oil to be expelled
directly into the atmosphere. At these low engine speed, the mixture not ignite
by the spark is the expelled directly into the exhaust system. Each time this
misfiring occurs, the amount of fuel remaining in the cylinder increase, until
it is great enough to be ignited by the spark. But the EXP-2 ignites the entire
mixture without the use of spark </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">at low & medium loads and is able to bum off and
oil in the cylinder in every cycle, eliminating the possibility of misfire and
reducing hydrocarbon emissions. This 400-cc single cylinder not only uses the
ASDI and active radial combustion but a trapping valve too. This is a new
technology ion the design of exhaust valve for two-stroke engine. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYy_k43HkTQLuhoxZs6vHOZAnD7m-hLEtMdlsnQfWQgdWkOPIcV_rlfpezTTMG9McZo-5tsUJ37gWr1MrVOrXeAtki2pfW2K6PPIzjd7i7UKoh8jbOHyl09p6lG6irWHDVNeb-ykgB9oVm/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="170" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYy_k43HkTQLuhoxZs6vHOZAnD7m-hLEtMdlsnQfWQgdWkOPIcV_rlfpezTTMG9McZo-5tsUJ37gWr1MrVOrXeAtki2pfW2K6PPIzjd7i7UKoh8jbOHyl09p6lG6irWHDVNeb-ykgB9oVm/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAEYEs6BtbGm64yCFMHjRxUznkkyBw8WeNQiK88QADAq_jeBQITUwVlJW8BeAIZaPH-89k90PKjb4dF8h-_zjyA5kTa3YEsvXrtn7YgnsZ_S-Iq0Zgu-KE_DrhGdj-LMmmKyGQF1XJxCSD/s1600/Untitled.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> 6.
</span><b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">TRAPPING
VALVE</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">These type of exhaust valve system restrict the
exhaust port at low r.p.m. and retract to uncover the exhaust port at high
r.p.m.. They trap the unburned gases that’s scavenge out the burned gases from
the combusion chamber before they can escape into the exhaust pipe. An engine
equipe with sush a system delivers more power at low end and mid range without
the use of an expansion chamber. This system is KAWASAKI
KX250. In the EXP-2 as shown in cut way section of the exhaust port ,
the valve is raised and lowers the top of the exhaust port , their by decreasing and increasing the fuel mixture
pressure in the cylinder as needed. By setting valve position base on the engine
rpm and throttle position , the pressure required for auto ignition can be
achived at exactly right timing , causing all fuel in the cylinder burn
completely. </span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAEYEs6BtbGm64yCFMHjRxUznkkyBw8WeNQiK88QADAq_jeBQITUwVlJW8BeAIZaPH-89k90PKjb4dF8h-_zjyA5kTa3YEsvXrtn7YgnsZ_S-Iq0Zgu-KE_DrhGdj-LMmmKyGQF1XJxCSD/s1600/Untitled.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="268" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAEYEs6BtbGm64yCFMHjRxUznkkyBw8WeNQiK88QADAq_jeBQITUwVlJW8BeAIZaPH-89k90PKjb4dF8h-_zjyA5kTa3YEsvXrtn7YgnsZ_S-Iq0Zgu-KE_DrhGdj-LMmmKyGQF1XJxCSD/s320/Untitled.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="tab-stops: .5in;">
<b> 7. CONCLUSION</b></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Thus by using these
three technology, Honda EXP-2 produces 54 Hp and a 65N-m torqe making it one of
the best motocross racing bike.This was proved at the Granda-Dakar rally ,
where it was adjusted first in both under 500-cc and 2-stroke class , 8 over
all in Nevada rally and 7 over all Bajaj 1000. Honda will start the production
of the worlds cleanest 2 stroke motor cycle by the end of this year. </span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The Bimoto 500 V due a 500cc
2-stroke V- twine using the ASDI and trapping valve technology produces 110hp @
8000rpm.It achives all this while remaining environment friendly. </span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Honda was initiated then production of
CR250, which is gaint leap in the manufacturers willingness to implement new
patent in to production bike evolution. </span></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> We would definitely in years
to come notice bikes and scooter make use of this kind of technology bringing
the rebirth of 2-stroke engine as an environment friendly machine. </span></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-14437972484589286772011-09-26T13:05:00.001+05:302011-10-03T12:46:57.357+05:30Development in BOMBS<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<h3>
Abstract<i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></i></h3>
<h3>
<i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Smart bombs are the weapons capable of destroying enemy targets
without the need for launch aircraft to penetrate the envelopes of the air
defense systems. These essentially comprise a terminal guidance unit that
guides them in the last phase to achieve pinpoint accuracy. Increase accuracy
means that a single, moderate size bomb can give a better result than multiple
strikes with larger ,non-guided bombs.</span></i></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Smart bombs are desirable both from
ethical and tactical standpoints. On ethical grounds, the military desires that
each warhead deployed should strike only its intended targets so those innocent
civilians are not harmed by misfire. From tactical standpoint, it wants weapons
with pinpoint accuracy to inflict maximum damage on valid military targets and
minimize the number of strikes necessary to achieve mission objectives. Gravity
bombs with laser or GPS/INS guidance is smart bombs that have changed the face
of modern warfare.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">You can see how lethal and merciless smart
bombs can be a realistic battlefield scenario was amply demonstrated in Gulf
War and recently reiterated during US attack on Iraq. This paper will explain you
the operational mechanisms, salient feature and limitations of this rapidly
grooming smart bomb</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: black;">Introduction</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">"In World War II it could take 9,000 bombs to hit a target
the size of an aircraft shelter. In Vietnam, 300.Today we can do it
with one laser-guided munition from an F-117."<br />
USAF, Reaching Globally, Reaching Powerfully: The United States Air Force in
the Gulf War (Sept. 1991) </span><span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">United States Army</span></a> began experimenting with
radio-controlled remotely guided planes in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">First World War</span></a>,
but the program had few successes. The first successful experiments </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">with guided bombs were conducted
during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">World War II</span></a>
when television-guided bombs, flare sighted bombs and other steerable
munitions, such as the 450 kg (1000 lb) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZON" title="AZON"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">AZON</span></a> bomb, were developed.
The Germans developed several types of steerable munitions, such as the 1400 kg
(3085 lb) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz_X" title="Fritz X"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Fritz X</span></a>,
the closest <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_powers_of_World_War_II" title="Axis powers of World War II"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Axis</span></a> equivalent of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Army_Air_Force" title="US Army Air Force"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">US Army Air Force</span></a>'s
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AZON" title="AZON"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">AZON</span></a> device. There was
even an attempt to produce a glider bomb that was released from a larger plane
over the target, but the program stopped with the nuclear attacks in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" title="Japan"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Japan</span></a>.</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span lang="EN">The programs started again in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Korean War</span></a>,
where the political ramifications of nuclear war would have been unthinkable.
In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s" title="1960s"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1960s</span></a>,
the electro-optical bomb (or camera bomb) was introduced. They were equipped
with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television" title="Television"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">television</span></a>
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camera" title="Camera"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">cameras</span></a>
and steerable flare sights, in which the bomb would be steered until the flare
superimposed the target. The camera bombs transmitted a "bomb's eye
view" of the target back to a controlling aircraft. An operator in this
aircraft then transmitted control signals to steerable fins fitted to the bomb.
Such weapons were used increasingly by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAF" title="USAF"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">USAF</span></a> in the last few years
of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Vietnam War</span></a>
because the political climate was increasingly intolerant of collateral damage.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h1>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Laser Guided
Bombs: -</span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The development of laser-guided weapons has dramatically improved
the accuracy of weapon guidance and delivery. With the assistance of build-up
guidance kits, general GP bombs are turned into laser-guided bombs (LGBs). The
kits consist of a computer- control group (CCG), guidance canards attached to
the front of the warhead to provide steering commands, and a wing assembly
attached to the aft end to provide lift. LGBs are maneuverable, free-fall
weapons requiring no electronic interconnect to the aircraft. They have an
internal semi active guidance system that detects laser energy and guides the
weapon to a target illuminated by an external laser source. The designator can
be located in the delivery aircraft, another aircraft, or a ground source. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">All LGB weapons have a CCG, a warhead (bomb body with fuze), and
an airfoil group. The computer section transmits directional command signals to
the appropriate pair(s) of canards. The guidance canards are attached to each
quadrant of the control unit to change the flight path of the weapon. The
canard deflections are always full scale (referred to as "bang, bang"
guidance). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The LGB flight path is divided into three phases: ballistic,
transition, and terminal guidance. During the ballistic phase, the weapon
continues on the unguided trajectory established by the flight path of the
delivery aircraft at the moment of release. In the ballistic phase, the
delivery attitude takes on additional importance, since maneuverability of the
UGB is related to the weapon velocity during terminal guidance. Therefore,
airspeed lost during the ballistic phase equates to a proportional loss of maneuverability.
The transition phase begins at acquisition. During the transition phase, the
weapon attempts to align its velocity vector with the line-of-sight vector to
the target. During terminal guidance, the UGB attempts to keep its velocity
vector aligned with the instantaneous line-of- sight. At the instant alignment
occurs, the reflected laser energy centers on the detector and commands the
canards to a trail position, which causes the weapon to fly ballistically with
gravity biasing towards the target.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Target designators are semi-active illuminators used to
"tag" a target. Typical laser guided bomb receivers use an array of
photodiodes to derive target position signals. These signals are translated
into control surface movements to direct the weapon to the target. An airborne
detector can provide steering information to the pilot, via his gun sight, for
example, and lead him on a direct heading to the target, finally giving him an
aim point for a conventional weapon. Alternatively, a laser guided "smart"
bomb or missile may be launched when a pilot is satisfied that the detector
head has achieved lock-on and launch envelope requirements are satisfied. In
either of these cases, the pilot may never see the actual target, only the aim
point as indicated by the laser.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Laser designators and seekers use a pulse coding system to ensure
that a specific seeker and designator combination work in harmony. By setting
the same code in both the designator and the seeker, the seeker will track only
the target designated by the designator. The pulse coding is based on Pulse
Repetition Frequency (PRF). The designator and seeker pulse codes use a
truncated decimal system. This system uses the numerical digits 1 through 8 and
the codes are directly correlated to a specific PRF. Dependent upon the laser
equipment, either a three digit or a four-digit code can be set. Coding allows
simultaneous or nearly simultaneous attacks on multiple targets by a single
aircraft, or flights of aircraft, dropping laser guided weapons (LGWs) set on
different codes. This tactic may be employed when several high priority targets
need to be expeditiously attacked and can be designated simultaneously by the
supported unit(s). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Fire control laser systems are laser rangefinders (LRFs) and laser
designators (LDs). These laser systems can be far more harmful to the eye than
laser training devices such as MILES and Air-to-Ground Engagement System/Air
Defense (AGES/AD) laser simulators. Consequently, fire control lasers require
control measures to prevent permanent blindness to an unprotected individual
viewing the laser system from within the laser beam. </span><span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 18pt;"></span></div>
<h1>
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 18pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 12pt;"> Development:-</span></h1>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto;">
<span lang="EN">Laser-guided
weapons were first developed in the United States in the early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s" title="1960s"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1960s</span></a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAF" title="USAF"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">USAF</span></a> issued the first
development contracts in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_in_aviation" title="1964 in aviation"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1964</span></a>, leading to the development of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paveway" title="Paveway"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Paveway™</span></a>
series, which was used operationally in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Vietnam</span></a>
starting in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1968_in_aviation" title="1968 in aviation"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1968</span></a>. Although there were a variety of
technical and operational problems, the results were generally positive. LGBs
proved to offer a much higher degree of accuracy than unguided weapons, but
without the expense, complexity, and limitations of guided <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-to-ground_missile" title="Air-to-ground missile"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">air-to-ground missiles</span></a> like the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGM-12_Bullpup" title="AGM-12 Bullpup"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">AGM-12 Bullpup</span></a>.
The LGB proved particularly effective against difficult fixed targets like
bridges, which previously had required huge loads of "dumb" ordnance,
and large numbers of sorties, to destroy.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">It was determined that 48 percent of Paveways dropped
during 1972–73 around <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Hanoi</span></a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiphong" title="Haiphong"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Haiphong</span></a>
achieved direct hits, compared with only 5.5 percent of unguided bombs dropped
on the same area a few years earlier.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser-guided_bomb#_note-AH#_note-AH" title=""><span style="color: black;">[1]</span></a></sup> The average Paveway landed within 23
feet of its target, as opposed to 447 feet for gravity bombs.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser-guided_bomb#_note-AH#_note-AH" title=""><span style="color: black;">[1]</span></a></sup> The leap in accuracy brought about
primarily by laser guidance made it possible to take out heavily defended,
point objectives that had eluded earlier air raids. The most dramatic example
was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanh_Hoa_Bridge" title="Thanh Hoa Bridge"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Thanh Hoa Bridge</span></a>, 70 miles south of Hanoi, a
critical part crossing point over the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_River" title="Red River"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Red River</span></a>.
Starting in 1965, U.S. pilots had flown 871 sorties against it, losing 11
planes without managing to put it out of commission. In 1972 the “Dragon’s Jaw”
bridge was attacked with Paveway bombs, and 14 jets managed to do what the
previous 871 had not: drop the span, and cut a critical North Vietnamese supply
artery. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">In the wake of this success, other nations, specifically
the Soviet Union, France, and Great Britain, began developing similar weapons
in the late 1960s and early <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s" title="1970s"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1970s</span></a>,
while US weapons were refined based on combat experience.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USAF" title="USAF"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">USAF</span></a>
and other air forces are now seeking to upgrade their LGBs with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS" title="GPS"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">GPS</span></a> guidance as a back-up.
These weapons, such as the USAF Enhanced Guided Bomb Unit (part of the Paveway™
family), use laser designation for precision attacks, but contain an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_navigation_system" title="Inertial navigation system"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">inertial navigation system</span></a> with GPS
receiver for back-up, so that if the target illumination is lost or broken, the
weapon will continue to home in on the GPS coordinates of the original target.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="Problems_and_Limitations"></a></span></div>
<h4>
<span lang="EN"> Problems And Limitations:-</span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">While LGBs are highly accurate under ideal conditions,
they present several challenges for successful use, making them somewhat less
than the "silver bullet" sometimes suggested.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The first problem is designation. To ensure accurate
guidance, the target must be illuminated for several seconds before launch,
allowing the weapon's seeker to obtain a positive lock, and the target must
remain illuminated during much of the weapon's transit time. If the
designator's "sparkle" is turned off, blocked, or moved, the weapon's
accuracy will be greatly reduced.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">For an accurate attack against a small target,
uninterrupted designation is essential. But, the guidance controls of many LGBs
(such as the American Paveway™ II) cause large deflections (visible as a
noticeable wobble) which reduce the bomb's range. To compensate, crews will
often release their weapons in an unguided, ballistic arc, activating the
designator only to refine the bomb's final impact point. This is more demanding
of crew and aircraft, requiring a high standard of basic, unguided bombing
accuracy and more attention to the bomb's flight.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Laser designation is very sensitive and vulnerable to
weather conditions. Cloud cover, rain, and smoke often make reliable
designation impossible. In war conditions, many attacks have been aborted due
to poor visibility.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">In the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s" title="1970s"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1970s</span></a>
and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s" title="1980s"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1980s</span></a>
it was common for aircraft to rely on a separate designator, either carried by
ground forces, operated by the forward air controller, or carried by another
aircraft in the strike group. It was often deemed more practical for one
aircraft to designate for its comrades. Modern conflicts and a growing emphasis
on precision-guided weapons have pointed to the need for autonomous
designation, and many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter-bomber" title="Fighter-bomber"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">fighter-bomber</span></a> aircraft are now being fitted with designator
pods to self-designate for laser-guided munitions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Even if the launch aircraft is capable of autonomous
designation, problems remain. Laser illumination can be interrupted by smoke,
fog, or clouds, limiting the usefulness of LGBs in poor weather or very dusty
conditions. In desert warfare, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1991 Gulf War</span></a>,
laser designation sometimes reflected off the sand, causing weapons to home on
false targets. Furthermore, the need to provide designation may leave the
aircraft dangerously exposed to ground fire or enemy air support.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">An additional concern is the limited "launch
envelope" of an unguided weapon. The reflected laser "sparkle"
can be described as a basket into which the weapon must be steered to hit the
target. If the weapon is released too low or to far from the target, or in a
trajectory that puts the weapon outside the seeker's field of view, it is
likely to miss. Optimum altitude for an effective LGB attack is relatively
high, increasing the aircraft's vulnerability to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile" title="Surface-to-air missile"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">surface-to-air missile</span></a> (SAM) attacks.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">For these reasons, while all modern air forces have put
an increasing emphasis on LGBs and other precision-guided munitions, some
tacticians still see an important role for the accurate delivery of unguided
bombs. During their <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1981" title="1981"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">1981</span></a>
raid on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Iraqi</span></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">nuclear reactor</span></a>
at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osirak" title="Osirak"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Osirak</span></a>,
the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israeli_Air_Force" title="Israeli Air Force"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Israeli Air Force</span></a> chose to use unguided <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_84_bomb" title="Mark 84 bomb"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;">Mark 84 bombs</span></a>
rather than laser-guided weapons because they felt the need to designate the
target would leave the attackers unacceptably vulnerable.</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Missile_test_montage.jpg" title="A laser-guided GBU-24 (BLU-109 warhead variant) strikes its target"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></a></span><b><i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"></span></i></b></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Figure 1 A
laser-guided GBU-24 (BLU-109 warhead variant) strikes its target</span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Bolt-117_lgb.jpg" title="BOLT-117, the world's first laser guided bomb"><span style="color: black; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></a></span></div>
<b><i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"></span></i></b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"></span><br />
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<span lang="EN" style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Figure 2 BOLT-117, the World’s first laser guided bomb & Carrier</span><b><i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"></span></i></b></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="1" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: .7pt; mso-padding-alt: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 89.42%;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 25.5pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td colspan="2" style="height: 25.5pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: black;">Specifications</span></b></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Mission</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Offensive counter air, close air support,
interdiction </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Targets </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Fixed hard </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Class</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">4,000 lb. Penetrator, Blast/Fragmentation</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Service </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Air Force </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Contractor</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Lockheed (BLU-113/B), National Forge (BLU-113A/B),</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Program status </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Production </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">First capability </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">1991 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Weight (lbs.)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">4,414</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Length (in.)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">153</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Diameter (in.)</span></div>
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<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">14.5</span></div>
</td>
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<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 11;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Explosive</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">6471bs. Tritonal</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 12;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Fuze</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">FMU-143 Series</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 13;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Stabilizer</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Air Foil Group (Fins)</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 14;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Guidance method </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Laser (man-in-the-loop) </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 15;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Range </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Greater than 5 nautical miles </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 16;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Development cost </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Development cost is not applicable to this
munition. </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 17;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Production cost </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">$18.2 million </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 18;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Total cost </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">$18.2 million </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 19;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Acquisition unit cost</span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">$145,600 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.7pt; mso-yfti-irow: 20;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Production unit cost </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.7pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">$145,600 </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.05pt; mso-yfti-irow: 21;">
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Quantity </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: 11.05pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">125 plus additional production </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: .65pt; mso-yfti-irow: 22; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: white; height: .65pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt; width: 29.7%;" width="29%"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Platforms </span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; height: .65pt; padding: 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt 3.0pt;"><div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">F-15E, F-111F </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<br /></div>
<i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9pt;"><br /></span></i></div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-42696216020417280182011-09-26T12:53:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:42:12.530+05:30NON- CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRyXxDvF8pV5io9bk1MkH_dLYXfHlCEUs2VHDrUolN2905Yvkp6ijwlb051A8NhLf-GuwJW9GM2upYR4hCzpn-oCIl0OHj8xmQcJte1u_ej1FYbdXkNr1W778Ls7fIfgdJ8N2updrrFNmg/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 28pt;">
</span>
<br />
<div class="Section2">
<address style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">ABSTRACT</b></address>
<div style="tab-stops: 45.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Not only in industries but also in our economic life in general
significance of energy generation or power shows a steadily increase
productivity in most important industrial fields such as mining, metallurgical,
civil engineering, architecture and in all types of machine construction etc.
there is an impending need to make much more need to make Non Conventional Energy
attain popular acclaim. This is also very essential to preserve the
conventional sources of energy and explore viable alternatives like sustainable
energy (the energy which we are already utilizing but for some safety of other
uses we are suddenly wasting it, that can be reutilized), solar, wind and
biomass that can enhance sustainable growth. What is more, such
alternatives are environment friendly and easily replenish able.
Therefore, they need to be thoroughly exploited with a functionally expedient,
energy matrix mix. </i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">
The Stair case electricity generator is specially planned to design and
fabricate the conversion unit for utilizing the available unconventional energy
source. That is tremendously available energy in low intensity with ample
quantity can be utilized. This machine converts reciprocating motion in to
rotary motion. The rotational power is stored in flywheel & flywheel rotate
alternator that generate electricity. </span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> This source of power can be used
at the station building, platform and waiting rooms. Also by accumulating this
low intensity electricity in Batteries, it can be supplied to the commercial
complexes or shopping complexes near by the railway station or in big villages
or in towns where there is scarcity of electric supply.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b> GENERATION OF ENERGY</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The development
planning process designs strategies and activities to use, enhance or conserve
both natural and economic goods and services. In big modern cities, economic
goods and services almost completely replace the natural ones.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Energy is the
prime source of all socio-economic activities of the human community. The
demographic rate of growth globally and the widening spectrum of economic
growth would result in demands of energy at an incremental rate of 7 to 8%
annually. This can easily support a GDP growth of 8 to 9% per annum.
Projections point toward a doubling of global energy demands in the decade
starting 2020. There will be a marked shift in patterns of energy
consumption whereby developing economies of the world would have a share
exceeding two-third of global energy consumption by that period.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fossil fuels'
consumption would remain the major source of energy generation and globally
employed power generation technologies. The apportionment of renewable energy
in the entire energy supply will continue to be marginal in the real
sense. The contribution of renewable energy-excepting hydel energy and
conventional biomass as a proportion of global energy output is pegged at a
paltry 2%. This scenario in all likelihood is not going to be altered
therefore, guaranteeing the possibility of nudging the renewable contribution
up to 5% by 2020. The global sources of fossil fuel will have become dearer due
to their depletion thereby, making the viability of fossil fuel plants
restoring parity with the renewable sources. 60% of the cumulated energy
needs world-wide would be met through renewable sources.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Growing economies,
especially of Asia are gifted with sufficient
resource base and non-conventional energy technologies are consistent both for
grid linked energy generation and transmission in out of the way locales that
are islanded from the grid. Adaptation of technology and employing them
should be pursued right from this moment to have a head start, be informed of
the barriers in technology applications of the renewable variety and
synergising them with the existing, traditional power production technology and
T&D networks. It is known that in coming times, wind energy will be
the most cost-effective renewable resource. Yet, it is doubtful if any
individual technology would hold centre-stage.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It was in the
1970s that the real potential and role of renewable energy sources was sensed
and identified in India
for sustainable energy growths. During the past quarter of a century, a
significant thrust has been given to the development, trial and induction of a
variety of renewable energy technologies for use in different sectors.
The activities cover all major renewable energy sources, such as biogas,
biomass, solar energy, wind energy, small hydro power and other emerging
technologies.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">India</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> has presently among the world's plentiful agenda on
renewable energy. In the 8th Plan, vis-à-vis a proposal of 600 MW generations,
close to 1050 MW of power generating capacity fastened to renewable energy
sources was added. About 1500 MW of the total grid capacity in the country is
now based on renewable energy sources. India is rated fourth in the world
with a wind power capacity of 1000-1100 MW. Small hydel power generation,
which is especially ideal for remote, hilly regions, presently not exploited
but holds a potential of 500 MW in today's scenario. India has an extensive cane sugar
production and we are implementing the world's biggest biogases based cogeneration
programmed in agglomeration with sugar mills. There is substantial leverage as
regards to deducing energy from urban and industrial wastes. The National
Programmes lays special emphasis on supplying energy to rural areas. Close to
2.75 million biogas plants and over 28 million upgraded wood-stoves are also in
use in the country.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In the sphere of
solar energy use, solar photovoltaic and solar thermal technologies are gaining
immediate reception for a host of industrial and commercial applications, as
well as in Non Electrified and Rural Zones (NERZ). The country has the world's
largest assemblage of solar photovoltaic, consisting of about 500,000 PV
systems totaling to 39 MW, and encompassing over 30 variegated operations.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">There is an added
emphasis on venturing into grid quality power generation Programmes oriented on
solar thermal and solar photovoltaic technologies. A 140 MW Integrated Solar
Combined Cycle (ISCC) Power Project is being accorded conclusive shape to be
established at Methane near Jodhpur
in Rajas than. This will be the first of its kind, and the largest such project
in the world.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">To give a fillip
to power generation from renewable energy, State Governments and utilities
provide remunerative power purchase agreements and arrangements for wheeling,
banking and buy back of power. 12 States have so far announced policies for
non-conventional energy based power generation. The Indian Renewable Energy
Development Agency (IREDA), the corporate financing arm of the Ministry, is the
only Agency of its kind in the world dedicated to financing of renewable energy
projects. Interest rates vary from 0% to 16%, with special rates being offered
for projects.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">There is an
impending need to make much more forays to make Non Conventional energy attain
popular acclaim. This is also very essential to preserve the conventional
sources of energy and explore viable alternatives like solar, wind and biomass
that can enhance sustainable growth. What is more, such alternatives are
environment friendly and easily replenish able. Therefore, they need to
be thoroughly exploited with a functionally expedient, energy matrix mix.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">A revolutionary
step would be the advent of renewable energy co-operatives for power vending,
installation and servicing of renewable energy systems in pockets like NERZs.
With a view to take a long-term perspective, and to actualize the entire scope
of Non-Conventional energy sources, it is incumbent to draw up a capacious
Renewable Energy Policy involving all players in the field, together with the
active participation of consumers as well</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In the Ninth Plan
(1997-02), the accent is on according commercialization and development of
entrepreneurship in all Renewable and Non Conventional Energy Schemes and
Plans. An extra power generating capacity from Renewable and Non
Conventional Energy sources of about 1500 MW is envisaged. The immediate
challenge is to reconcile the reduced budgetary allocations in the 9th Plan due
to fiscal control. The Ministry of Non Conventional Energy has
stated objective of propping up 24,000 MW from Renewable and Non Conventional
Energy by the year 2012.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
need is however to have adequate policy framework to be in place with an aim to
provide impetus through streamlining the structure of Renewable and Non Conventional
Energy. The high potential is what should spur maximum efforts. The
bottlenecks are that although there are good plans, we often fall short in
measuring up to meet the desired levels of optimization of our potential. If
there is a strict regiment by which Renewable and Non Conventional
Energy Sources are utilized, India is sure to have adequate
measure of success. The Numero Uno position in Renewable and Non Conventional
Energy is well within reach with a little bit of concerted effort.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">STAIR CASE ENERGY
GENERATOR</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">INTRODUCTION </b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Thus we selected
stair case power generator means the “Energy in motion when it is suddenly
applied with a sort of obstacle, then according to Newton’s law for every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction. Utilization of this reaction is the basic reason behind
the selection of this project work.”<b><span style="font-weight: normal;"></span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQYBsvvILhG6j67Nuzc1sWEnHK3ds0jk6XUBVjKtW4YBr-2Hp78PVRooecrmcTlt2yf2VV495O-5jqqZ5y9M1shK1oDb8oFZWRt1HzXbvbc3zWNe8CjDHdff5ck1e8cFLcnY00w6UeRfgC/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQYBsvvILhG6j67Nuzc1sWEnHK3ds0jk6XUBVjKtW4YBr-2Hp78PVRooecrmcTlt2yf2VV495O-5jqqZ5y9M1shK1oDb8oFZWRt1HzXbvbc3zWNe8CjDHdff5ck1e8cFLcnY00w6UeRfgC/s1600/Untitled.png" /></a></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 10pt; font-weight: normal;">FIG 1: the set up flow diagram</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">We
can install generator along with the arrangement of converting the reciprocating motion to the rotary
motion. This rotary motion is further magnify using reciprocating motion in to
rotary motion-belt & pulley drive. The output of pulley is attached with
flywheel it stored kinetic energy and transfer to alternator which generate
electricity with zero cost.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoTitle" style="tab-stops: .5in 262.5pt; text-align: justify;">
WORKING OF PROJECT</div>
<div class="MsoTitle" style="tab-stops: .5in 262.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoTitle" style="tab-stops: .5in 262.5pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoHeader" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">
STAIR CASE STEP POWER GENERATOR Converters</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> basically new concept of non-conventional energy generation. It is electro-mechanical energy generating
machine. This machine converts reciprocating motion in to rotary motion. The
rotational power is stored in flywheel & flywheel rotates dynamo, which
generates electricity. </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Here first
important point is how we get reciprocating motion, which is prime input in the
system. For that we use weight of stepping person on the stair case step that
climbs or get down the over the overhead bridges. We put our machine underneath
the stair case installing different
units below every step foot space. Each person stepping on the every foot
step will press the individual unit separately. All the units are connected to
the common shaft using chain and sprocket drive. For stepping moment only the
energy is generated and for that instant sprocket wheel will rotate the common
shaft summing up the rotating motion altogether.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> The head of rack is brought up to
level beneath the stair foot plate surface. When person move on the step, the
rack on it will be pushed down. The rack is attached with free wheel type
pinion that rotates in one direction only. The rack & pinion arrangement
convert reciprocating motion in to rotary motion.</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> This rotary motion is further
magnified using reciprocating motion in to rotary motion-belt & pulley
drive. The output of pulley is attached with flywheel</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">which stores
kinetic energy and transfer to dynamo which generate electricity with zero
cost.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> A "generator" and
"motor" is essentially the same thing: what you call it depends on
whether electricity is going into the unit or coming out of it. A generator
produces electricity. In a generator, something causes the shaft and armature
to spin. An electric current is generated, as shown in the picture (lighting
bolt).Lots of things can be used to make a shaft spin - a pinwheel, a crank, a
bicycle, a water wheel, a diesel engine, or even a jet engine. They're of
different sizes but it's the same general idea. It doesn't matter what's used
to spin the shaft - the electricity that's produced is the same.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
sizes of major components are flywheel is with 1m dia, 10cm rim width, and 20mm
rim thickness. It is a six-armed flywheel.
Mounted on a shaft with 4/5 cm. Dia. A bicycle mechanism is arranged
with the help of which limb movement of the operator is converted into rotation
of big sprocket of the chain drive. The
speed of small sprocket is further amplified using G’ a speed rise gear
pair. A young lad of age group 20-25,
slim stature 165cm height, speeds up this flywheel up to 800 rpm in duration of
1 minute.</span></div>
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b> TRANSMISSION OF SYSTEM</b></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b> </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
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Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-54159041979596360012011-09-24T12:19:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:42:51.333+05:30TIDAL ENERGY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h5 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">ABSTRACT</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 14pt;"></span></h5>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Twice each
day, thanks to a gravitational pull on earth from our rotating moon, the
world's oceans produce powerful water currents and rising and falling tides.
Humans have studied and exploited the tremendous power of the tides for
millennia, including harnessing tidal power in 10<sup>th</sup> century dams to
turn millwheels for grinding flour. Forty years ago, the first tidal dams were
constructed to convert tidal power into electricity. One of the first such
tidal dams was constructed on Canada’s
Bay of Fundy, where tides rise by as much as
12 meters (45 feet). Now, new energy technologies (NOT dams) that generate
electricity from tidal currents could help produce as much electricity as the
largest hydroelectric dams or nuclear and fossil fuel generating stations,
without producing greenhouse gases or harming the environment. This paper
focuses on need of renewable energy sources, tidal power superiority over other
types of renewable energy sources. Paper also gives brief information of
construction, basic components& types of tidal power plants.Information
regarding turbines used in tidal plants are also given. Advantages&
disadvantages of tidal power plant is also discussed. The paper also includes
case study of La-Rance in France
is given for more information regarding this important power source.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> INTRODUCTION</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Creating
power using water flow is not a new idea. A Frenchman known only as Monsieur
Girard filed the first-ever patent for a wave energy device on July 12, 1799. He thought
that if someone used the “motion and successive inequality of waves, which
after having been elevated like mountains fall away in the following instant. .
One has conceived the idea of the most overfull machine which has ever existed”
(Ross 1991). This simple yet inventive idea has changed drastically since its
introduction. Today, hydroelectric power, or energy produced by water, is used
in various forms ranging from dams to tidal generation.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The
sources for 90% of the electric energy generated today are non- renewable
(Edinger 2000). Renewable sources of energy are necessary because the Earth
will eventually run out of the resources to create non-renewable energy. There
are three types of renewable energy sources: solar, wind, and waterpower. Both
solar and wind power are drastically affected by weather variations, while
tidal power varies little when the weather changes. Seawater is 832 times as
dense as air; therefore the kinetic energy available from a 5-</span><span style="color: blue; font-size: 10pt;">knot </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">ocean current is equivalent to a wind velocity of 270 km/m (Blue
Energy Canada 2000). Thus, tidal power generation may be the most viable of the
three types of renewable sources of energy.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Tides, the
daily rise and fall of ocean levels relative to coastlines, are a result of the
gravitational force of the moon, the gravitational force of the sun, and the
revolution of the Earth. The tides produce the electricity for tidal power by
flowing in and out of turbines. A hydrostatic head or adequate water height
difference on either side of the turbine is all that is necessary to run the
turbine, and the turbines turn an electric generator that produces electricity.
The simple idea of utilizing hydrostatic head to power turbines will be the
crux of our article.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6Quv-3_MiwE3ZQK9mWob5SWRsy7GUEgjuzDWxq3NFN1ABWZwnVB2cIjmbv7g7G9kY9pd3xxnftw9FezYsElT7_We2XJou1NfvLjhw-QvtX5M8tuIzh7FnEHwIeLZXV1mL77cLBJlPfp2z/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6Quv-3_MiwE3ZQK9mWob5SWRsy7GUEgjuzDWxq3NFN1ABWZwnVB2cIjmbv7g7G9kY9pd3xxnftw9FezYsElT7_We2XJou1NfvLjhw-QvtX5M8tuIzh7FnEHwIeLZXV1mL77cLBJlPfp2z/s1600/Untitled.png" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Chart
illustrating the comparative energy advantage of Blue Energy’s Vertical-axis
tidal current turbine system over other renewable energy options. (Courtesy,
Blue Energy Canada) </span><b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">BASIC
PRINCIPLES OF TIDES</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Gravitational
Effects and the Centrifugal Force:-The interaction of the Moon and the Earth
results in the oceans bulging out towards the Moon, whilst on the opposite side
the gravitational effect is partly shielded by the Earth resulting in a
slightly smaller interaction and the oceans on that side bulge out away from
the Moon, due to centrifugal forces. This is known as the Lunar Tide. This is
complicated by the gravitational interaction of the Sun which results in the
same effect of bulging towards and away from the Sun on facing and opposing
sides of the Earth. This is known as the Solar Tide. As the Sun and Moon are
not in fixed positions in the celestial sphere, but change position with
respect to each other, their influence on the tidal range (difference between
low and high tide) is also affected. For example, when the Moon and the Sun are
in the same plane as the Earth, the tidal range is the superposition of the
range due to the lunar and solar tides. This results in the maximum tidal range
(spring tides).Alternatively when they are at right angles to each other; lower
tidal differences are experienced resulting in neap tides. Tidal basics </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">1. Most
locations have two tidal cycles per day: 12 hours, 25 minutes</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">2. Essentially
caused by interaction of moon, earth, and sun centrifugal forces</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">3. Diurnal
tides are generated because the maxima and minima in each daily rotation are
unequal in amplitude</span></div>
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<h2>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Fig.1
Generation of Tides’</span></h2>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> TYPE OF TIDAL POWER PLANTS</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">•
First-generation, barrage-style tidal power plants </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The oldest
technology to harness tidal power for the generation of electricity involves
building a dam, known as a barrage, across a bay or estuary that has large
differences in elevation between high and low tides. Water retained behind a
dam at high tide generates a power head sufficient to generate electricity as
the tide ebbs and water released from within the dam turns conventional
turbines. Though the American and Canadian governments considered constructing
ocean dams to harness the power of the Atlantic tides in the 1930s, the first
commercial scale tidal generating barrage rated at 240 MW was built in La
Rance. </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">•
Second-generation, tidal current power production </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Engineers
have recently created two new kinds of devices to harness the energy of tidal
currents (AKA ‘tidal streams’) and generate renewable, pollution-free</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Electricity.
These new devices may be distinguished as Vertical-axis and Horizontal axis
models, determined by the orientation of a sub sea, rotating shaft that turns a
gearbox linked to a turbine with the help of large, slow-moving rotor blades.
Both models can be considered a kind of underwater windmill. While
horizontal-axis turbine prototypes are now being tested in northern Europe (the UK and Norway) a vertical-axis turbine has
already been successfully tested in Canada. Tidal current</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Energy systems
have been endorsed by leading environmental organizations, including
Greenpeace, the Sierra Club of British Columbia and the David Suzuki Foundation
as having “the lightest of environmental footprints,” compared to other large-scale
energy system.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;">TYPE 1ST: BARRAGE TYPE TIDAL</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">POWER PLANT
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS BASIC COMPONENTS:</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The four
main components of a tidal power generation plant will be subsequently
discussed. These components (as shown in Figure 2) are a tidal basin, a </span><span style="color: blue; font-size: 10pt;">tidal barrage</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">, </span><span style="color: blue; font-size: 10pt;">sluice
gates</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">, and the tidal turbines
themselves. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The first
component of a tidal power generation plant is a tidal basin, or estuary.
Finding a proper site containing an estuary is essential for the successful
operation of a tidal power generation plant. One must note that the estuary
will not be man-made; rather, the tidal basin will be a geographical feature
that is not easily </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Figure 2: Ebb generating system with a
bulb turbine</span></b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
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replicated. A suitable estuary is typically a large
body of water that is almost entirely surrounded by land with a small opening
to the sea. The amount of power that a tidal power generation plant can produce
is proportional to the size of the estuary (Taylor 1982).</div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The second
component of a tidal power generation plant is the tidal barrage. This barrage
looks like a wall that cuts off the estuary from the remainder of the sea. The
bottom of the barrage sits on the sea floor, and the top of the barrage sits
above the highest level that seawater can reach at high tide (Edinger 2000).
The tidal barrage serves the purpose of cutting off seawater from water in the
estuary so that water can be channeled through the wall in a beneficial manner
for tidal power to be created.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> The third component of tidal power generating
plants is sluice gates. Basically defined, sluice gates are areas of the
barrage where water can freely flow in and out of the estuary. These gates are
not always open: rather, they are controlled by the power plant operators such
that water flows in and out of the estuary in a favorable method to the tidal
turbines. Sluice gates do not have a uniform location on the tidal barrage. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The fourth major component of tidal power
generation plants is the tidal turbines themselves. These turbines are located
within the tidal barrage, and sit near the bottom of the sea floor. The
turbines are designed in the same manner as a steam turbine. The turbines lie
between sluice gates located on both the estuary and seaside of the tidal
barrage. When these gates are opened, water rushes through the turbines,
spinning the blades and creating electricity.</span></div>
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<h3>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">SINGLE
EFFECT &DOUBLE EFFECT POWER GENERATION</span></h3>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">There are
two unique designs for tidal power generation plants. The first is single
effect, which is also referred to as ebb generating flow. The second, more
complex, design is termed double effect and will be discussed after single
effect is understood. Single effect tidal power generation plants create power
from water flowing through turbines in only one direction (Ross 1995). In the
same way that steam turbines cannot operate if steam flows through in the
opposite direction, single effect turbines cannot function unless water is run
through them in a uniform direction. The tidal cycle of single effect operation
is discussed below. Assume that water in the estuary is low and high tide</span><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A111D0t00; font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">conditions
exist outside of the estuary</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Figure 3: The tidal cycle for single effect turbines (Newsome
2002).</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> When the water level in the sea is
sufficiently high, sluice gates located away from the tidal turbines are opened
and water rushes into the estuary, eventually filling the tidal basin to the
level of the sea. When the water level inside the estuary reaches the water
level of the sea, the sluice gates are closed and the high water sits inside of
the estuary. While the water level inside of the estuary stays constant, the
water level in the sea goes down and low tide conditions are ultimately
reached. When the sea water level is suitably low, sluice gates located in
front of and behind the turbines are opened. By opening these sluice gates,
water is forced to flow through the turbine, spinning the blades and creating
electricity. The sluice gates are closed when the estuary water level reaches
the low tide water level of the sea. The water level in the sea rises back to
high tide, and the cycle starts over again (Banal 1981).</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The tidal
cycle of double effect turbines (see Figure 4) is shown below. The cycle begins
as the single effect cycle does, with the water level in the estuary low nd the
water level in the sea at high tide conditions. Sluice gates in front of and
behind the turbines are opened so that water rushes through the turbines,
creating electricity. When the water level inside the estuary gets to the same
level as the sea water level, the sluice gates are closed. The water in the
estuary stays high, and the water in the sea will finally reach low tide
conditions. When the water level in the sea is low enough, the same sluice
gates in front of and behind the turbine are reopened and water flows out of
the estuary through the turbines (Banal 1981).</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><br /></span><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A11120t00;"></span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;">Figure 4: The tidal
cycle for double effect turbines.</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Turbines
that generate electricity when water flows over the blades in two directions
are the largest innovation in tidal power technology. The blades are designed
such that they spin in the same direction regardless of the direction that
water flows over them. Allowing the blades to spin due to multi-directional
flow allows double effect turbines to have a greater power output than
comparable single effect turbines. Intuition tells people that double effect
turbines should create about twice as much power as single effect turbines.
Double effect turbines do produce more power than comparable single effect
turbines: however, double effect turbines do not produce twice the amount of
power that single effect turbines create (Ross 1991). </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> TURBINES USED IN TIDAL POWER STATION</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;">Tidal Turbines:</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Several
different turbine configurations are possible. For example, the </span><span style="color: blue; font-size: 10pt;">La Rance </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">tidal plant near St Malo on the Brittany coast in France uses a bulb turbine (figure
5). In systems with a bulb turbine, water flows around the turbine, making
access for maintenance difficult, as the water must be prevented from flowing
past the turbine. Rim turbines (figure 6), such as the Straflo turbine used at Annapolis Royal in Nova
Scotia, reduce these problems as the generator is
mounted in the barrage, at right angles to the turbine blades. Unfortunately,
it is difficult to regulate the performance of these turbines and it is
unsuitable for use in pumping. Tubular turbines have been proposed for use in
the Severn tidal project in the United Kingdom.
</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">In this
configuration, the blades are connected to a long shaft and orientated at an
angle so that the generator is sitting on top of the barrage. </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Fig.5 Bulb Turbine (Copyright Boyle, 1996)</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A111D0t00;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A111D0t00; font-size: 10pt;">Fig.6 Rim Turbine (Copyright Boyle,
1996)</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A11120t00;">Details of Bulb turbine</span></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A111D0t00;">: </span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The Bulb
turbine is a reaction turbine of Kaplan type which is used for the lowest
heads. It is characterized by having the essential turbine components as well
as the generator inside a bulb, from which the name is developed. A main
difference from the Kaplan turbine is fore over that the water flows with a
mixed axial-radial direction into the guide vane cascade and not through a
scroll casing. The guide vane spindles are inclined (normally 60o) in relation
to the turbine shaft. Contrary to other turbine types this results in a conical
guide vane cascade. The Bulb turbine runner is of the same design as for the
Kaplan turbine, and it may also have different numbers of blades depending on
the head and water.</span></div>
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<h2>
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></h2>
<h2>
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Fig7. Constructional Details of Bulb Turbine</span><span style="color: blue; font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt;"></span></h2>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Basic components of bulb turbine</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Stay cone</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Runner
chamber</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Draft tube
cone- stay cone</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Runner
chamber</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Draft tube
cone</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Generator
hatch</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Stay shield</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Rotating
parts</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Turbine
bearing</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Shaft seal
box</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">- Guide vane
mechanism</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> </span></b></div>
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<b>The power available from the
turbine at any particular instant is given by</b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> </span></b>
<br />
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Where,</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Cd = Discharge Coefficient</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">A = Cross sectional area (m2)</span></div>
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">G = gravity = 9.81</span><br />
<div style="margin-bottom: 12.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">r = density
(kg/m3)</span></div>
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The discharge coefficient accounts for the
restrictive effect of the flow passage within the barrage on the passing water.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
equation above illustrates how important the difference between the water
levels of the sea and the basin, (Z<sub>1</sub>-Z<sub>2</sub>), is when
calculating the power produced</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;">TYPE 2ND: TIDAL CURRENT POWER
GENERATION</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Advantages
of tidal current power generation Like the ocean dam models of France, Canada and Russia,
vertical and horizontal axis tidal current energy generators are fueled by the
renewable and free forces of the tides, and produce no pollution or greenhouse
gas emissions. As an improvement on ocean dam models, however, the new models
offer many additional advantages:- because the new tidal current models do not
require the construction of a dam, they are considered much less costly, they
are considered much more environmentally-friendly., further cost-reductions are
realized from not having to dredge a catchments area.- tidal current generators
are also considered more efficient because they can produce electricity while
tides are ebbing (going out) and surging (coming in),whereas barrage-style
structures only generate electricity while the tide is ebbing. Vertical-axis
tidal</span><span style="color: black;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">generators may be stacked and joined together in series to span a
passage of water such as a fiord and offer a transportation corridor (bridge),
essentially providing two infrastructure services for the price of one.
Vertical-axis</span><span style="color: black;"> </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">tidal generators may be joined together in series to create
a ‘tidal fence’ capable of generating electricity. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Tidal
current energy, though intermittent, is predictable with exceptional accuracy
many years in advance. Present tidal current or tidal stream technologies are
capable of exploiting and generating renewable energy in many marine
environments that exist worldwide. It is proximal to existing, significant
electro transportation infrastructure - is blessed with exceptional
opportunities to generate large scale, renewable energy for domestic use and
export </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> TURBINES USED IN TIDAL CURRENT TYPE
POWER PLANT</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><b> </b>Fig .8
Tidal Turbine</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">•
Vertical-axis tidal turbine– Canadian connection</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">A Canadian
company – Blue Energy Canada Inc. – has completed six successful prototypes of
its vertical-axis ‘Davis Hydro Turbine, named after its inventor, the late
Barry Davis. Barry Davis trained as an aerospace engineer, working on the
renowned Canadian Avro ‘Arrow’ project, then on the equally-remarkable ‘Bras
D’Or’ hydrofoil project of the Canadian Navy. Barry then decided to apply his
knowledge of hydrodynamics in creating a tidal energy generator. Barry received
support from the Canadian National Research Council and successfully tested 5
turbine prototypes in the St. Lawrence Seaway
and on the eastern seaboard. Blue Energy is presently raising funds for a
commercial demonstration project of the Davis Hydro Turbine.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Figure
9: cutaway graphic depicting an array of vertical-axis tidal turbines stacked
and joined in series across a marine passage. </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tidal currents push on vertical mounted hydrofoils that apply a torque
force to rotating shafts, which are coupled to generators housed just above the
water level. A transportation corridor (bridge, etc.) may be constructed along
the top surface providing two-for-one infrastructure service (courtesy, Blue
Energy Canada Inc.). </span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A11120t00; font-size: 10pt;">Figure 10</span></b><b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A111D0t00; font-size: 10pt;">: cutaway graphic of a ‘mid-range scale’ (2 x 250 kW)
vertical-axis tidal turbine. (Courtesy, Blue Energy Canada Inc.)</span></b></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-family: TTE1A11120t00;">Trends in Generation Technologies:-</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">It has
been over 30 years since the world's largest tidal power station was
constructed on the Rance Estuary in France. At 240MW, it easily dwarves
the 18MW</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Station at Annapolis Royal, Canada which was completed in 1984
and smaller, (less than 500 kW) systems in the Bay of Kislaya
and Janga Creek completed around the time of the La Rance project. Concerns
over the environmental effects of barrage tidal plants since the construction
of the La Rance tidal power station have lead to the development of
technologies which have less impact on the environment. Two key areas of
development have been in tidal fences and tidal turbines (also known as tidal
mills) Tidal Fences Tidal fences are composed of individual, vertical axis
turbines which are mounted within the fence structure, known as a caisson, and
they can be thought of as giant turn styles which completely block a channel,
forcing all of the water through them as shown in figure in operation.</span></div>
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<h2>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Figure
11: Artists impression of a tidal fence</span></h2>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Unlike barrage
tidal power stations, tidal fences can also be used in unconfined basins, such
as in the channel between the mainland and a nearby off shore island, or
between two islands. As a result, tidal fences have much less impact on the
environment, as they do not require flooding of the basin and are significantly
cheaper to install. Tidal fences also have the advantage of being able to
generate electricity once the initial modules are installed, rather than after
complete installation as in the case of barrage technologies. Tidal fences are
not free of environmental and social concerns, as a caisson structure is still
required, which can disrupt the movement of large marine animals and shipping.
A 2.2GWp tidal fence using the Davis Turbine is being planned for the San
Bernadino Strait in the Philippines.
The project, estimated to cost $US 2.8 Billion and take 6 years to complete.
Tidal Turbines Proposed shortly after the oil crisis of the 1970s, tidal turbine s have only become reality in the
last five years, when a 15kW 'proof of concept' turbine was operated on Loch
Linnhe. Resembling a wind turbine, tidal turbines offer significant advantages
over barrage and fence tidal systems, including reduced environmental effects.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Figure12:
Schematic of an axial flow, seabed mounted marine current turbine</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Tidal
turbines utilize tidal currents which are moving with velocities of between 2
and 3 m/s (4 to 6 knots) to generate between 4 and 13 kW/m2. Fast moving
current (>3 m/s) can cause undue stress on
he blades in a similar way that very strong gale force winds can damage
traditional wind turbine generators, whilst lower velocities are uneconomic.
Little research and development has been until taken until very recently in
this area, with only the small 3kW, Australian Tyson turbine, for river
systems, available commercially. Funding for a 300kW tidal turbine,
manufactured by IT Power Ltd has just been funded by the European Commission
and is expected to be installed during the year 2000.</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black;"> CONSTRAINTS TO TIDAL POWER GENERATION</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">There are
also some significant environmental disadvantages which make tidal power,
particularly barrage systems less attractive than other forms of renewable
energy. Tidal Changes The construction of a tidal barrage in an estuary will
change the tidal level in the basin. This change is difficult to predict, and
can result in a lowering or rising of the tidal level. This change will also
have a marked effect on the sedimentation and turbidity of the water within the
basin. In addition, navigation and recreation can be affected as a result of a
sea depth change due to increased sedimentation within the basin. A rising of
the tidal level could result in the flooding of the shoreline, which could have
an effect on the local marine food chain.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> Ecological Changes Potentially the
largest disadvantage of tidal power is the effect a tidal station has on the
plants and animals which live within the estuary. As very few tidal barrages have
been built, very little is understood about the full impact of tidal power
systems on the local environment. What has been concluded is that the effect
due to a tidal barrage is highly dependent upon the local geography and marine
ecosystem energy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CASE
STUDY</span></h3>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">La Rance
Tidal Generation Plant the La Rance Tidal Generation Plant is currently the
world’s largest and oldest operational tidal power plant. Some brief historical
and background information about the plant will first be provided, followed by
the advantages and disadvantages of the plant. Background </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Fig.13
La Rance Tidal Generation Plant</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The La
Rance tidal power plant was initially designed in 1954, but construction was
not complete until 1967. This tidal power plant is so named because it sits on
the La Rance River, near St. Malo, on the Brittany coast in France. Although the La Rance plant
sits on a river, it has the same mannerisms as any other tidal power plant
located in the sea. The La Rance plant is located on the river close enough to
the sea for the river water to have tides similar to the sea tides. The
enclosed estuary of the La Rance has tidal range of up to 13.5 meters this
large tidal range provides a large hydrostatic head, which aids the plant’s
power production. The plant has 24 separate horizontal 10 MW turbines. The La
Rance plant utilizes double effect instead of single effect turbines. When all
turbines are functioning, the turbines provide an overall output of 240 MW of
power. This 240 MW is enough power to meet the electricity needs of about
300,000 homes (Banal 1981).</span></div>
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<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Figure
14: This shows the difference in sea</span></b></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Levels at
high tide on the La Rance River (“The Rance Tidal Power Plant” 2002). Plant
Advantages and Disadvantages Many traits have allowed the La Rance plant to
successfully generate power over the past years. During the plant’s 30 years of
operation it has produced a total of 16 billion kWh and maintained an average
reliability of 90%. This reliability statistic means that at any given time,
only 10%, or roughly two of the 24 turbines will be inoperative. Turbine
efficiency is also an issue. Efficiency is the ratio of actual power output to
expected power output (Moran 2000). The operating turbines in the La Rance
power plant produce an output of 95% efficiency. While this efficiency
statistic seems good, it seems even better when compared to the efficiency of
traditional energy sources. Traditional coal burning technology operates at
about 35% efficiency (Shaw 1980). </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Reliability
and efficiency are just a few of the many advantages from the La Rance tidal
plant. La Rance’s minimal impact on the environment also illustrates advantages
of tidal power. A tidal power station does not result in any chemical or
thermal pollution of the natural environment. Expected consequences from the
tidal plant stem from the obstacle that a tidal barrage creates. The La Rance
plant greatly impacted the environment only at initial construction. Marine
flora and fauna suffered as a result of human intervention in the environment.
The biological diversity in the basin recovered once the construction phase of
the plant ended.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The
flooding of the estuary is another environmental problem that can be caused
when building a tidal power plant. Although flooding of the estuary did not Happen
with the La Rance tidal power generation plant, flooding could be a major
Problem elsewhere. The La Rance bas in did not flood because the plant was
carefully planned and is always monitored to ensure that water levels in the
estuary do not become dangerously high. People do not inhabit the area around
the plant, so no homes were lost when the La Rance plant was created (Banal
1981). If people have environmental concerns about tidal power plants, they can
look to the La Rance tidal power generation plant and see that it is possible
to build an effective plant without destroying the plant’s surrounding
environment. </span></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The 24 turbines
not only give the La Rance plant its plentiful power source, but also make it
possible to build a four-lane road on top of the tidal barrage. This barrage
reduced the distance from two neighboring cities from 45 km to 15 km. A bridge
averaging 26,000 vehicles per day now connects these cities, once separated by
the river, and traffic rises to around 50,000 vehicles per day during the
summer. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Research has
shown that building a bridge over a tidal power generation plant will ost little less than the initial construction
cost of the La Rance plant (Shaw 1980). If this is true, the La Rance plant
serves two purposes for the price of one. Now some of the disadvantages of La
Rance will be explored, although the disadvantages are minimal. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">The
biggest disadvantage of the La Rance was the high initial cost of construction.
When built 1967, the plant cost 617 million francs, which is equivalent to 3.7
billion U.S. dollars today (Banal 1981). Although the initial cost is high, the
plant has been in operation over 30 years and maintenance costs are minimal.
Therefore, the plant has paid for itself over the years. Several different turbine
configurations are possible in tidal power plants. For example, the La Rance
uses a </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Bulb turbine .Water surrounds bulb
turbines, making access to the turbines difficult. The regular maintenance for
the turbines includes work on the turbines for 6 days every 4 years and 4 weeks
every 10 years. This sort of maintenance is typical for turbine operations.
Double effect bulb turbines are more difficult to maintain as a result of the
incoming and outgoing flow producing extra stress on the rotors. This extra stress
resulted in non-functional turbines, which led to losses in reliability. As a
result, La Rance does not generally run double effect because plant operators
found that running the turbines in single effect was more cost effective than
running double effect (Clark 1997). Thus,
double effects urbane are not necessarily the proper choice for every tidal
power generation plant. <br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
<br style="mso-special-character: line-break;" />
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black;"> PROBABLE SITES IN INDIA</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">1) Gulf of cambay: The range is 10.8m.Some of the sites on
western banks are Sonari & Bhavnagar creek & sites on eastern bank are
Dhodar &Kim river outfalls. His potential estimate is around 15MW. The
major problem is high sliy index 5000ppm causing erosion of barrage.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">2) Gulf of Kutch: The maximum range is 7.5M. Lara creek
& Wank creek near Navlakhi are of attraction. Power potential is greater
than Cambay.Slit charge is much smaller than Cambay.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">3) Sundarban
area in West Bengal: The tide range 4.8m.Power
of 40MW can be produced in this area.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 349.8pt; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black;"> ADVANTAGES
&DISADVANTAGES OF TIDAL POWER</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black;"> PLANT </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black;">Advantages:</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">1)
Exploitation will in no case make demand for large area of valuable land,
because they are on bays.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">2) It is
free from any pollution as it does not use any fuel. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">3) It is
much more suitable than hydropower plant as it is independent of rain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">4) It is
independent on season cycle.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">5) It has
unique capacity to meet the peak power demand effectively when it works in
combination with thermal or
hydroelectric. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Disadvantages: </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">1) Can
only be developed if natural sites are available. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">2)
Transportation cost is more as sites are away from the load center.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">3) The
navigation is obstructed.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">4) The
output is varies with lunar cycle.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">5) Capital
cost is considerably high.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">6) Supply
is not continuous as it depends on timing of tides.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h4>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CONCLUSION</span></h4>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 10pt;">Advances
in tidal power technology have occurred in a relatively short amount of time,
and engineers have more incentive than ever to improve tidal power Generation.
When many engineers began experimenting with the idea of creating electricity
from the tides, tidal power was not taken seriously. Currently, the search for
renewable energy sources has become serious. More and more people are committed
to finding alternatives to the burning of natural resources because people
realize that soon enough, other power options must be explored. They see that
there is no reason to delay the switch
to another power source. Although another source of energy will be needed in
the future, tidal power will not be this source. Tidal power can help ease the
strain on other types of power production. The entire United States
could be powered by the tides; yet the cost is more than most people would be
willing to pay. So long as engineers have the ability to dream up new ideas and
constantly improve on them, humanity will have some sort of power source. Tidal
power has the potential to generate significant amounts of electricity at
certain sites around the world. Tidal power can be a valuable source of
renewable energy, although the United
States electricity needs could never be met
by tidal power alone. The negative impacts of tidal barrages are much smaller
than those of other sources of electricity; however this reason alone is not
enough to pursue implementation on a global scale. The technology required for
tidal power is well developed, and the main barrier to increase the use of
tides is that of construction cost. The prospect of natural resources and cost
of other forms of energy will ultimately decide the future of tidal power
generation.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com38tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-37796883202017594192011-09-24T11:55:00.001+05:302011-10-03T12:43:14.414+05:30ISO 14000<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: center;">
<b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abstract</i></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">‘ISO’
“International organization for standardization” The effective tool and method
to assure quality of product and giving satisfaction to customers. Now a days
in the world of global market everyone is trying to capture maximum market
through good quality of service to costumer. But due to modern
industrialization and uses of modern technologies the chances of hampering the
environment also increases much more. To protect the
nature and society from various pollution like air, water etc. become an
important activity and responsibility ahead of society and industry.</span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To promote the
awareness about the same ISO has implemented a system of standard called as
ISO14000. Under ISO14000, ISO 14001:2000 is a major system of documents and
procedure by adapting these one can study, control, and assure to protect
environment from his own company. ISO14000 main focus is to protect nature from
pollution and other type of disabilities.</span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">What are the principles
behind the ISO 14000 series?</span></i></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The ISO 14000 standards and other documents are being
developed with the following key principles in mind:</span></i></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To
result in better environmental management</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To
encompass environmental management systems and the environmental aspects
of products</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To be
applicable in all countries</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To
promote the broad interests of the public and the users of the standards</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To be
cost-effective, no prescriptive and flexible so they are able to meet </span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">the
differing needs of organizations of any type or size worldwide</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">As part
of their flexibility, to be suitable for internal and/or external
verification</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">To be
scientifically based</span></i></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Above
all, to be practical, useful and usable.</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">ISO14000</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="intro"><b>Introduction</b></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">After
the success of the ISO9000 series of quality standards, the International
Standards Organization published a comprehensive set of standards for
environmental management. This series of standards is designed to cover the
whole area of environmental issues for organizations in the global marketplace.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="history"><b>History of
Development</b></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The
ISO 14000 series emerged primarily as a result of the Uruguay round
of the GATT negotiations and the Rio Summit on the Environment held in 1992.
While GATT concentrates on the need to reduce non-tariff barriers to trade, the
Rio Summit generated a commitment to protection of the environment across the
world. The environmental field has seen a steady growth of national and
regional standards. The British Standards Institution has <a href="http://www.quality.co.uk/bs7750.htm"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">BS 7750</span></a>, the Canadian
Standards Association has environmental management, auditing, eco-labeling and
other standards, the European Union has all of these plus the <a href="http://www.quality.co.uk/emas.htm"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">eco-management and audit regulations</span></a>,
and many other countries (e.g. USA,
Germany
and Japan)
have introduced eco-labeling programs. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">After the rapid acceptance
of ISO 9000, and the increase of environmental standards around the world, ISO
assessed the need for international environmental management standards. They
formed the Strategic Advisory Group on the Environment (SAGE) in 1991, to
consider whether such standards could serve to: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In 1992, SAGE's
recommendations created a new committee, TC 207, for international
environmental management standards. The committee and its sub-committees
include representatives from industry, standards organizations, government and
environmental organizations from many countries. The new series of ISO14000
standards are designed to cover: </span></div>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="mso-cellspacing: 0in; mso-padding-alt: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="15" hspace="13" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="15" /></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">environmental
management systems </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="15" hspace="13" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="15" /></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">environmental
auditing </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="15" hspace="13" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="15" /></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">environmental
performance evaluation </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="15" hspace="13" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="15" /></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">environmental
labeling </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="15" hspace="13" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="15" /></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Life-cycle
assessment </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 31.5pt;" valign="top" width="42"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="15" hspace="13" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image001.gif" width="15" /></span></div>
</td>
<td style="padding: 0in 0in 0in 0in; width: 100.0%;" valign="top" width="100%"><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">environmental
aspects in product standards </span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b>Need of standards</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">A set of international
standards brings a world-wide focus to the environment, encouraging a cleaner,
safer, healthier world for us all. The existence of the standards allows
organizations to focus environmental efforts against an internationally
accepted criteria. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">At present many countries
and regional groupings are generating their own requirements for environmental
issues and these vary between the groups. A single standard will ensure that
there are no conflicts between regional interpretations of good environmental
practice.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The fact that companies may
need environmental management certification to compete in the global
marketplace could easily overshadow all ethical reasons for environmental
management. Within Europe, many organizations
gained ISO9000 Registration primarily to meet growing demands from customers.
ISO 9000 quality registration has become necessary to do business in many areas
of commerce. Similarly, the ISO 14000 management system registration may become
the primary requirement for doing business in many regions or industries. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 3; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Who do the standards apply </span></b><b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">to?</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The standards apply to all
types and sizes of organizations and are designed to encompass diverse
geographical, cultural and social conditions. For ISO14001, except for
committing to continual improvement and compliance with applicable legislation
and regulations, the standard does not establish absolute requirements for
environmental performance. Many organizations, engaged in similar activities,
may have widely different environmental management systems and performance, <i>and
may all comply with ISO14001</i>. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="whatcover"><b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">What
is ISO 14000?</span></b></a><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">ISO 14000 is the International Standard used for
assistance in implementing or improving your Environmental Management System.
Many companies, such as automotive manufacturers, various governmental
agencies, etc., are requiring their suppliers to obtain third-party
registration. ISO 14000 is the specification standard in the 14000 series. It
is the only one to be used for third-party registrations. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">What is an environmental management system?</span></b><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">An environmental management system (EMS)
is an overall structure that focuses on the short and long-term impact of an
organization's products, services, and processes on the environment. The EMS ensures order and consistency by guiding the
organization in the sharing of resources, assignments of responsibilities, and
providing ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures, and processes.</span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Who Requires
Registration?</span></b><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">" Ford is
requiring suppliers to certify at least one manufacturing site to ISO 14000 by
the end of 2001 and all manufacturing sites shipping products to Ford by July 1, 2003."<br />
--Ford Motor Organization Web Site<br />
<br />
" It is our intent that all suppliers to general Motors implement an
environmental management system by December, 31, 2002… Working together with our suppliers,
we can accomplish much more to improve the environment than GM can alone."<br />
--Harold R. Kutner, GM VP for Purchasing<br />
<br />
"The requirement [ISO 14000] applies to all Tier 1 suppliers, but
eventually will affect all suppliers."<br />
--Dan Jankowski, GM Spokesperson<br />
<br />
"Toyota
has a unique relationship with its suppliers… We are known for expecting them
to share our high quality standards… Now we are asking them to join us in
becoming environmental leaders." [Suppliers that provide raw materials
and/or parts and components to Toyota
will be required to develop, implement, and have third-party certification of
an environmental management system conforming to ISO 14000 by December 31, 2003.]<br />
--Teruyki Minoura, President and CEO Toyota Motor Manufacturing North America
Inc.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Benefits
of ISO 14000. </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Can provide evidence of reasonable care and
regulatory compliance. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Focuses on preventive rather than corrective
action. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Possible reduction of insurance and warranty
costs. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Can conserve energy and materials. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Can enhance public image and/or market share. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Possible increased business and trade
opportunities. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Can reduce incidents and liability. </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Helps to meet vendor requirements. </span></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-left: 21.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ISO 14000 has
5 principles:</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin-left: 39.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list 39.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Commitment and
policy</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Your organization
defines your environmental policy and commitment to its EMS.<br />
Policy should include:<br />
* mission, vision, core values, and beliefs<br />
* requirements of and communication with interested parties<br />
* continual improvement<br />
* prevention of pollution<br />
* guiding principals<br />
* coordination with other organizational policies (e.g. quality, OSHA)<br />
* specific regional or local conditions<br />
* compliance with relevant environmental regulations, laws, and criteria to
which the organization subscribes </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Planning</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">How
does your organization plan to fulfill your environmental policy.<br />
Planning to include:<br />
* Identifying environmental aspects and evaluation of associated impacts<br />
* legal requirements<br />
* environmental policy<br />
*Internal performance evaluation criteria<br />
* objectives and targets<br />
* plans and management program</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Implementation</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Your organization
should have or develop the capabilities to achieve your
environmental policy, objectives, and targets.<br />
Implementation to include:<br />
* policies<br />
* allocation of resources<br />
* controls and documentation<br />
* training<br />
* accountability structure<br />
* analysis system<br />
* communication</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10pt;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Measurement
and evaluation</span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Your
organization should measure, monitor, and evaluate your environmental performance.<br />
Measurement and evaluation to include:<br />
Environmental aspects and their impacts<br />
Training activities<br />
Inspection, calibration, and maintenance<br />
Data collection and interpretation Non-conformance details<br />
Supplier information<br />
EMS
audits</span></div>
<div style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br />
<br />
<b>Review and improvement</b> </span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"> Management
should continuously improve the EMS with focus
on improving your environmental performance.<br /> Review should include:<br />
review performance, objectives, and
targets<br />
audit findings<br />
effectiveness<br />
suitability of policy (based on current
conditions) </span></div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-28581094678913478592011-09-24T11:51:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:43:35.815+05:30GLOBAL WARMING<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="Section1">
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ABSTRACT</i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Global Warming is caused by an increase in the
greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is not a bad thing by itself -- it's
what allows Earth to stay warm enough for life to survive.</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Global warming</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> is the observed increase in the average temprature of
the Earth’s Atmosphere and oceans in recent decades. The Earth's average
near-surface atmospheric temperature rose 0.6 ± 0.2 °celsius or1.1 ±
0.4 °Fahrenheit in the 20th century. The current scientific consensus is
that "most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to
have been due to human activity.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The primary
causes of the human-induced component of warming are the increased amounts of carbon
dioxide(CO<sub>2</sub>) and other greenhouse gases(GHGs) They are released by
the burning of coventional fuels, land clearing and aersols, etc. and lead to
an increase in the greenhouse effect.The term "global warming" is a
specific case of the more general term "climate change" (which can
also refer to "global cooling," such as occurs during ice age). In
principle, "global warming" is neutral as to the causes, but in
common usage, "global warming" generally implies a human influence.
However, the UNFCCC (United nations framework convention on climate change) uses
"climate change" for human-caused change, and "climate
variability" for other changes. Some organizations use the term
"anthropogenic climate change" for human-induced changes.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">1: INTRODUCTION </span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Increase in levels of Co2 during the last 400,000 years and the rapid rise
by which it has almost trippled since the Industrial Revolution has contibuted
to global warming. The climate system varies both through natural,
"internal" processes as well as in response to variations in external
"forcing" from both human and non-human causes, including activity such
as,volcanic emissions, and greenhouse gases. Climatologists agree that the
earth has warmed recently. The detailed cause of this change remains an active
field of research, but the scientific consensus identifies greenhouse gases as
the primary cause of the recent warming. Outside of the scientific community,
however, this conclusion can be controversial. Adding CO<sub>2</sub> or
Methane(CH<sub>4</sub>) to Earth's atmosphere, with no other changes, will make
the planet's surface warmer; greenhouse gases create a natural greenhouse
effect without which temperatures on Earth would be an estimated 30 °C
(54 °F) lower, and the Earth uninhabitable.Another important feedback
process is ice-albedo feedback. The increased CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere
warms the Earth's surface and leads to melting of ice near the poles. As the
ice melts, land or open water takes its place. Both land and open water are
less reflective than ice, and so absorb more solar radiation. This causes more
warming, which in turn causes more melting, and the cycle continues. Climate
studies indicate that, even if greenhouse gases were mitigated at present day
levels, a further warming of perhaps 0.5 °C to 1.0 °C
(0.9–1.8 °F) would still occur.due to the thermal inertia of earths oceans
and slow response of indirect effects which
is caused due to the earths climate not being in equilibrium.</span></div>
</div>
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="all" style="mso-break-type: section-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2xuyIBd9_8DnRu6SV8w_we-oXgr_upNMzJW1tw-T8HY8eeX5RgRK-2wgaP5JaRKUPzh7_1tiLS8S4R_M8kczdFVSSEEV0aYBCqCm9YJZMCBk8SC3HOs0ZCmnoCgR4vvEo1VZ6rwYZVw4R/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="222" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2xuyIBd9_8DnRu6SV8w_we-oXgr_upNMzJW1tw-T8HY8eeX5RgRK-2wgaP5JaRKUPzh7_1tiLS8S4R_M8kczdFVSSEEV0aYBCqCm9YJZMCBk8SC3HOs0ZCmnoCgR4vvEo1VZ6rwYZVw4R/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div>
<div align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">DIAGRAM 1. GREENHOUSE
EFFECT</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt;">1.1: GREENHOUSE GASES </span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Greenhouse gases are transparent to shortwave radiation from the sun, the
main source of heat on the Earth. However, they absorb some of the longer
infared radiaton emitted by the Earth, thereby reducing radiational cooling and
hence raising the temperature of the Earth. How much they warm the world by is
shown in their global warming potiential. About three-quarters of the
anthropogenic (man-made) emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere during
the past 20 years are due to fossil fuel burning. The rest of the anthropogenic
emissions are predominantly due to land-use change, especially deforestation
which has led to the increase of co2.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt;">1.2: RELATION BETWEEN GLOBALWARMING & OZONE
LAYER</span></b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">1)The same carbon dioxide radiative forcing that produces near-surface
global warming is expected to <i>cool</i>
the stratosphere. This, would lead to a relative <i>increase</i> in ozone depletion
and the frequency of ozone holes.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">2) Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the
climate system. the IPCC concludes that <i>observed stratospheric o3 losses
over the past two decades have caused a negative forcing of the
surface-troposphere system</i> of about
−0.15 ± 0.10 W/m²</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">3) Decreased ozone leads to an increase in ultraviolet levels. Ultraviolet
radiation may be responsible for the death of ocean algae, which operate as a
carbon dioxide sink in the ocean. Increased UV, therefore, may lead to a
decrease in carbon dioxide uptake, thereby raising global carbon dioxide levels</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">2: EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><span class="mw-headline"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Effects on ecosystems : </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Both primary and
secondary effects of global warming such
as higher temperatures, lessened snow cover, rising sea levels and weather
changes may influence not only human
activities, but also ecosystems. Some species may be forced out of their
habitats(possibly to extension) because of changing conditions, changes in
timing of life patterns, such as annual migration dates, may alter regional
preaditor prey balance. The effect of advanced spring arrival dates in
scandinavia on birds that over winter in sub-Saharan Africa has been ascribed
to evolutionary adaptation of the species to climatic warming. Ocean PH is
lowering as a result of increased carbon dioxide levels. Lowering of ocean pH,
along with changing water temperature and ocean depth will have a damaging
effect on coral reefs.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><span class="mw-headline"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Effect on glaciers:</span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Global warming has led
to negative glacier mass balance causing glacier retreat around the world Of
particular concern is the potential for failure of the Hindu Kush and Himalayan
glacial melts. The melt of these glaciers is a large and reliable source of
water for China, India and much of Asia and these waters form a principal
dry-season water source. Increased melting would cause greater flow for several
decades, after which "some areas of the most populated region on Earth are
likely to 'run out of water'.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><span class="mw-headline"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Sea level rise and environmental
refugees : </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Rising global temperatures will melt glaciers and expand the water of the
seas through the mechanism of thermal expansion leading to sea level rise. Even
a relatively small rise in sea level would make some densely settled coastal
plains uninhabitable and create a significant refugee problem. If the sea level
were to rise in excess of 4 meters almost every coastal city in the world
would be severely affected, with the potential for major damage to world-wide
trade and economy. global warming during that time may lead to irreversible
changes in the Earth's glacial system and causesignificant rise in sea level.
It is estimated that around 200 million people could be affected by sea level
rise, especially in south-asia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><span class="mw-headline"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Spread of disease: </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Global warming may extend the range of vectors
conveying infectious diseases such as maleria. A warmer environment boosts the reproduction
rate of mosquitoes and the number of blood meals they take, prolongs their
breeding season, and shortens the maturation period for the microbes they
disperse Global warming has been implicated in the recent spread to the north
mediteranian region theblue tounge dsease in sheep associated with mite bites .
Hanta virius infection , crimerian-congo hemorragic fever, tularameia and rabies
increased in wide areas of Russia.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">5)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><span class="mw-headline"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Financial cost:</span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> Financial institutions,
including the world's two largest insurance companies, Munich Re and Swiss Re
warned in a 2002 study that "the increasing frequency of severe climatic
events, coupled with social trends" could cost almost US$150 billion each
year in the next decade. These costs would, through increased costs related to
insurance and disaster relief, burden customers, taxpayers, and industry alike.
one percent of global GDP is required to be invested in order to mitigate the
effects of climate change, and that failure to do so could risk a Recession
worth up to twenty percent of global GDP.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">3:MITIGATION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The likelihood that global
temperatures will continue to significantly increase has led to proposals to
mitigate global warming. Mitigation covers all actions aimed at reducing the
negative effects or the likelihood of global warming.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">There are five categories of
actions that can be taken to mitigate global warming.</span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Conservation of
energy use </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Shifting from
carbon-based conventional fules to renewable resources</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">capture and storage
of carbon </span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">carbon
sequenceration</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Planetrary engineering
to cool the earth, including screen out sunlight or increasing ice-albedeo
ratio.</span></li>
</ol>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The world's primary international agreement on combating climate change is
the The Kyoto Protocol which is an
amendment to the UNFCCC (United nations framework convention on climate change<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">)</i>. Countries that ratify this protocol
commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse
gases, or engage in emission trading if they maintain or increase emissions of
these gases.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Strategies for mitigation of global warming include development of new
technologies, carbon offsets; Renewable energy such as Biodesiel, Wind power,
and Solar power Electric power, Nuclear power, Hybrid, Fuel cell, pollution
control ,Carbon Sinks; Carbon taxes and Carbon Capture and storage. Many
environmental groups encourage individual action against global warming often
aimed at the consumer, and there has been bussiness action on climate.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr4GssPbdyutMinyjzGzlHwuYJSdTVhIOdElkIHo29lEBU6p74OK65qRKOkkunXtbfVYVVqA8ITHxqzCC5QIkH2r54xgwZKvgpWuixiGnff5ElUMak4GXB1dKzORucbW8rhHFdMAEjSbzT/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr4GssPbdyutMinyjzGzlHwuYJSdTVhIOdElkIHo29lEBU6p74OK65qRKOkkunXtbfVYVVqA8ITHxqzCC5QIkH2r54xgwZKvgpWuixiGnff5ElUMak4GXB1dKzORucbW8rhHFdMAEjSbzT/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DanishWindTurbines.jpg" title="Wind often flows briskly and smoothly over water since there are no obstructions. The large and slow turning turbines of this offshore wind farm near Copenhagen take advantage of the moderate yet constant breezes at this location. Wind power is the only d"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> DIAGRAM 2: WIND ENERGY</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjB4kMTdn_t8fR2wrN782jnRj5VOgjpOzE28rZzjj9t6sTlQYqZKB9JH1QtO-WGMFQ3DYPsSZqMDc9t0kWxw65PR6HKTTdg2_qiSlZ1X2N7P-HX90V2QDZfxLl2SVZ1YRXxZrR8zIqVHw7y/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjB4kMTdn_t8fR2wrN782jnRj5VOgjpOzE28rZzjj9t6sTlQYqZKB9JH1QtO-WGMFQ3DYPsSZqMDc9t0kWxw65PR6HKTTdg2_qiSlZ1X2N7P-HX90V2QDZfxLl2SVZ1YRXxZrR8zIqVHw7y/s1600/Untitled.png" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Arctic_Ice_Thickness.png" title="NOAA projects that by the 2050s, there will only be 54% of the volume of sea ice there was in the 1950s."><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;"><br /></span></a></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">DIAGRAM 3
PREDICTION OF MELTING OF POLAR ICE CAPS IN 50 YEARS</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">4:CONCLUSION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1) </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">By reducing pollution from vehicles and power plants. We should put
existing technologies for building cleaner cars and more modern electricity
generators into widespread use. We can increase our reliance on renewable
energy sources such as wind, sun and geothermal. And we can manufacture more efficient
appliances and conserve energy, these technologies exist, the corporate and
political will to put them into widespread use does not. Many companies in the
automobile and energy industries put pressure on the Goverment to halt or delay
new laws or regulations -- or even to stop enforcing existing rules -- that
would drive such changes.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt;">2) OUR
CONTRTIBUTION TO MIGITATE GLOBAL WARMING</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">using </span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">compact fluorescent light
bulb over an incandescent bulb, for example, you'll lower your energy bill
and keep nearly 700 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the air over the
bulb's lifetime.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">reducing the use of vehicles
for short run.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">educating people about global warming.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">using more eco friendly refrigerants</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">banning the use of thermerform plastics.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">saving power by switing of lights and switchs when not in use.</span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">recycling waste products </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 11pt;">3) NEED FOR
MITIGATION </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">1)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">earth can satisfy our needs but not our greed so please
we must use our resources carefully and sensibilly.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">2)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">Unlike nations natural calamities and climate change know
no borders</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">3)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">The clock is ticking
and the time to act is now or
face our doom tomorrow.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> 4)<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">We must understand that
for our actions (explotation of our
planets resources) we are the only people answerable to nature and it’s course
of actions.</span></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com10tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-19981377292438193122011-09-23T17:56:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:44:14.700+05:30i-VTEC ENGINE<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJGjSn1zWNONGSa1nQAi06J54U-XEB18CBVJtjS8QVmawa5PufJw4mYrnsCR9DHT2a1WF9mhDUVutcjbLrHX4ZNADxjbD729tk3tTMM92bWr0MyelCw-QidUw994xh696DsNeldab1yoaq/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;">
</span>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abstract</i></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">The most
important challenge facing car manufacturers today is to offer vehicles that
deliver excellent fuel efficiency and superb performance while maintaining
cleaner emissions and driving comfort. This paper deals with<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> i-VTEC(intelligent-Variable valve Timing
and lift Electronic Control)</b> engine technology which is one of the advanced
technology in the IC engine. i-VTEC is the new trend in Honda’s latest large
capacity four cylinder petrol engine family. The name is derived from
‘intelligent’ combustion control technologies that match outstanding fuel
economy, cleaner emissions and reduced weight with high output and greatly
improved torque characteristics in all speed range. The design cleverly
combines the highly renowned VTEC system - which varies the timing and amount
of lift of the valves - with Variable Timing Control. VTC is able to advance
and retard inlet valve opening by altering the phasing of the inlet camshaft to
best match the engine load at any given moment. The two systems work in concern
under the close control of the engine management system delivering improved
cylinder charging and combustion efficiency, reduced intake resistance, and
improved exhaust gas recirculation among the benefits. i-VTEC technology offers
tremendous flexibility since it is able to fully maximize engine potential over
its complete range of operation. In short Honda's i-VTEC technology gives us
the best in vehicle performance.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
</div>
<h5 style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">1. RECENT ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINES</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></h5>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Common Rail Diesel Injection System(CRDI)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Direct Injection System(DI-System)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Multi Point Fuel Injection(MPFI)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Digital Twin Spark Injection(DTS-I)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Quantum Core Engine</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">16 Valve Engine</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Programmed Electronic Fuel Injection(PGM-FI)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Six Stroke Engine</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">INTRODUCTION:-</b></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">An internal combustion is defined as an engine in which the chemical
energy of the fuel is released inside the engine and used directly for
mechanical work. The internal combustion
engine was first conceived and developed in the late 1800’s. The man who is considered the inventor of the
modern IC engine and the founder of the industry is Nikolaus Otto (1832-1891). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Over a century has elapsed since
the discovery of IC engines. Excluding a
few development of rotary combustion engine the IC engines has still retained
its basic anatomy. As our knowledge of
engine processes has increased, these engines have continued to develop on a
scientific basis. The present day
engines have advances to satisfy the strict environmental constraints and fuel
economy standards in addition to meeting in competitiveness of the world
market. With the availability of sophisticated computer and electronic,
instrumentation have added new refinement to the engine design.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> From the past few decades,
automobile industry has implemented many advance technologies to improve the
efficiency and fuel economy of the vehicle and i-VTEC engine introduced by
Honda in its 2002 Acura RSX Type S is one of such recent trend in automobile
industry.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 15.0pt; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 15.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">i-VTEC:-</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The latest and most sophisticated
VTEC development is i-VTEC ("intelligent" VTEC), which combines
features of all the various previous VTEC systems for even greater power band
width and cleaner emissions. With the latest i-VTEC setup, at low rpm the
timing of the intake valves is now staggered and their lift is asymmetric,
which creates a swirl effect within the combustion chambers. At high rpm, the
VTEC transitions as previously into a high-lift, long-duration cam profile.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The i-VTEC system utilizes Honda's
proprietary VTEC system and adds VTC (Variable Timing Control), which allows
for dynamic/continuous intake valve timing and overlap control.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The demanding aspects of fuel economy, ample torque,
and clean emissions can all be controlled and provided at a higher level with
VTEC (intake valve timing and lift control) and VTC (valve overlap control)
combined.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJZmhAVjg21lGji_pcw1YbIHj-OkT7akmx2463fGqUSQC_ETVr9N7Bzkj5UaLgdIfM29ZeLp4Lihm7ER5l_9nwxnMLoFHGjEr1vuNoHwPye5MNZkh6X_aFS8yZnrV8pe0TVUYvj0X8pCoJ/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="181" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJZmhAVjg21lGji_pcw1YbIHj-OkT7akmx2463fGqUSQC_ETVr9N7Bzkj5UaLgdIfM29ZeLp4Lihm7ER5l_9nwxnMLoFHGjEr1vuNoHwPye5MNZkh6X_aFS8yZnrV8pe0TVUYvj0X8pCoJ/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 5.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 5.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The i stands for <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">i</b>ntelligent:
i-VTEC is intelligent-VTEC. Honda introduced many new innovations in i-VTEC,
but the most significant one is the addition of a variable valve opening
overlap mechanism to the VTEC system. Named VTC for Variable Timing Control,
the current (initial) implementation is on the intake camshaft and allows the
valve opening overlap between the intake and exhaust valves to be continuously
varied during engine operation. This allows for a further refinement to the
power delivery characteristics of VTEC, permitting fine-tuning of the mid-band
power delivery of the engine.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">VTEC ENGINE:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">VTEC (standing for Variable valve Timing and lift
Electronic Control) does Honda Motor Co., Ltd. develop a system. The principle
of the VTEC system is to optimize the amount of air-fuel charge entering, and
the amount of exhaust gas leaving, the cylinders over the complete range of
engine speed to provide good top-end output together with low and mid-range
flexibility.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">VTEC system is a simple
and fairly elegant method of endowing the engine with multiple camshaft
profiles optimized for low and high RPM operations. Instead of only one cam
lobe actuating each valve, there are two - one optimized for low RPM smoothness
and one to maximize high RPM power output. Switching between the two cam lobes
is controlled by the engine's management computer.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> As the engine speed is increased, more air/fuel
mixture needs to be "inhaled" and "exhaled" by the engine.
Thus to sustain high engine speeds, the intake and exhaust valves needs to open
nice and wide<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">.</b></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">As engine RPM increases, a
locking pin is pushed by oil pressure to bind the high RPM cam follower for
operation. From this point on, the valve opens and closes according to the
high-speed profile, which opens the valve further and for a longer time.</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">BASIC V-TEC MECHANISM</b> </div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The basic mechanism used by the
VTEC technology is a simple hydraulically actuated pin. This pin is
hydraulically pushed horizontally to link up adjacent rocker arms. A spring
mechanism is used to return the pin back to its original position. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">To
start on the basic principle, examine the simple diagram below. It comprises a
camshaft with two cam-lobes side-by-side. These lobes drive two side-by-side
valve rocker arms.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPM5pDLnPuCroD_Bf-Ilt3lQGus7Y2ueKtywjdTqyqVvJ50cMKvtvJBCC46oA0ygC6d-YKlyVDPeMTE-BhPfN8enmQESRFWqJ2WaNN08cg4DkiuuhbMHWp8-q0pXHCUTE6hcps_fq64FTg/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="181" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPM5pDLnPuCroD_Bf-Ilt3lQGus7Y2ueKtywjdTqyqVvJ50cMKvtvJBCC46oA0ygC6d-YKlyVDPeMTE-BhPfN8enmQESRFWqJ2WaNN08cg4DkiuuhbMHWp8-q0pXHCUTE6hcps_fq64FTg/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The two cam/rocker pairs operates independently of each other. One of
the two cam-lobes are intentionally drawn to be different. The one on the left
has a "wilder" profile, it will open its valve earlier, open it more,
and close it later, compared to the one on the right. Under normal operation,
each pair of cam-lobe/rocker-arm assembly will work independently of each
other.</span></div>
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">VTEC uses the pin actuation mechanism to link the mild-cam rocker arm
to the wild-cam rocker arm. This effectively makes the two rocker arms operate
as one. This "composite" rocker arm(s) now clearly follows the
wild-cam profile of the left rocker arm. This in essence is the basic working
principle of all of Honda's VTEC engines.</span></div>
<pre style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></pre>
<pre style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span></pre>
<pre style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list .25in left 45.8pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11pt;">DIFFERENT VARIANTS OF V-TEC:-</span></b></pre>
<pre style="tab-stops: 45.8pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 11pt;"> </span></b></pre>
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<pre style="margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list .25in left 45.8pt 91.6pt 137.4pt 183.2pt 229.0pt 274.8pt 320.6pt 366.4pt 412.2pt 458.0pt 503.8pt 549.6pt 595.4pt 641.2pt 687.0pt 732.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">VARIABLE TIMING CONTROL (VTC)</span></b></pre>
<pre style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> VTC operating principle is basically that of the generic variable valve timing implementation (this generic implementation is also used by by Toyota in their VVT-i and BMW in their VANOS/double-VANOS system). The generic variable valve timing implementation makes use of a mechanism attached between the cam sprocket and the camshaft. This mechanism has a helical gear link to the sprocket and can be moved relative the sprocket via hydraulic means. When moved, the helical gearing effectively rotates the gear in relation to the sprocket and thus the camshaft as well.</span></pre>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fig.3-VTC principle</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The drawing above serves to illustrate the basic
operating principle of VTC (and generic variable valve timing). <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A</b> labels the cam sprocket (or cam gear)
which the timing belt drives. Normally the camshaft is bolted directly to the
sprocket. However in VTC, an intermediate gear is used to connect the sprocket
to the camshaft. This gear, labelled <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">B</b>
has helical gears on its outside. As shown in the drawing, this gear links to
the main sprocket which has matching helical gears on the inside. The camshaft,
labelled <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">C</b> attaches to the
intermediate gear.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The supplementary diagram on the right shows what
happens when we move the intermediate gear along its holder in the cam
sprocket. Because of the interlinking helical gears, the intermediate gear will
rotate along its axis if moved. Now, since the camshaft is attached to this
gear, the camshaft will rotate on its axis too. What we have acheived now is
that we have move the relative alignment between the camshaft and the driving
cam-sprocket - we have changed the cam timing!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">i-VTEC SYSTEM:-</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Diagram explains
the layout of the various components implementing i-VTEC. I have intentionally edited the original
diagram very slightly - the lines identifying the VTC components are rather
faint and their orientation confusing. I have overlaid them with red lines.
They identify the VTC actuator as well as the oil pressure solenoid valve, both
attached to the intake camshaft's sprocket. The VTC cam sensor is required by
the ECU to determine the current timing of the intake camshaft. The VTEC mechanism on the intake cam remains
essentially the same as those in the current DOHC VTEC engines except for an
implementation of VTEC-E for the 'mild' cam.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The diagrams show that VTEC is
implemented only on the intake cam. Now,
note that there is an annotation indicating a 'mostly resting (intake) cam' in
variations 1 to 3. This is the 'approximately 1-valve' operating principle of
VTEC-E. I.e. one intake valve is hardly driven while the other opens in its full
glory. This instills a swirl effect on the air-flow which helps in air-fuel
mixture and allows the use of the crazy 20+ to 1 air-to-fuel ratio in lean-burn
or economy mode during idle running conditions.
On first acquaintance, variations 1 and 3 seem identical. However, in
reality they represent two different engine configurations - electronic-wise.
Variation 1 is lean burn mode, the state in which the ECU uses >20:1
air-fuel ratio. VTC closes the intake/exhaust valve overlap to a minimal. Note
that lean-burn mode or variation 1 is used only for very light throttle
operations as identified by the full load Torque curve overlaid on the VTC/RPM
graph. During heavy throttle runs, the ECU goes into variation 3 Lean-burn mode
is contained within variation-2 as a dotted area probably for the reason that
the ECU bounces to-and-fro between the two modes depending on engine rpm,
throttle pressure and engine load, just like the 3-stage VTEC D15B and D17A. In
variation-2, the ECU pops out of lean-burn mode, goes back to 14.7 or 12 to 1
air-fuel ratios and brings the intake/exhaust overlap right up to maximum. This
as Honda explains will induce the EGR effect, which makes use of exhaust gases
to reduce emissions. Variation-3 is the
mode where the ECU varies intake/exhaust-opening overlap dynamically based on
engine rpm for heavy throttle runs but low engine revs. Note also that
variations 1 to 3 are used in what Honda loosely terms the idle rpm. For
3-stage VTEC engines, idle rpms take on a much broader meaning. It is no longer
the steady 750rpm or so for an engine at rest. For 3-stage VTEC, idle rpm also
means low running rpm during ideal operating conditions, i.e. closed or very
narrow throttle positions, flat even roads, steady speed, etc. It is an idle
rpm range. The K20A engine implements this as well. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Variation-4 is activated whenever rpm
rises and throttle pressure increases, indicating a sense of urgency as
conveyed by the driver's right foot. This mode sees the wild(er) cams of the
intake camshaft being activated, the engine goes into 16-valve mode now and VTC
dynamically varies the intake camshaft to provide optimum intake/exhaust valve
overlap for power. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> On i-VTEC engines, the engine
computer also monitors cam position, intake manifold pressure, and engine rpm,
then commands the VTC (variable timing control) actuator to advance or retard
the cam. At idle, the intake cam is almost fully retarded to deliver a stable
idle and reduce oxides of nitrogen (NOX) emissions. The intake cam is progressively
advanced as rpm builds, so the intake valves open sooner and valve overlap
increases. This reduces pumping losses, increasing fuel economy while further
reducing exhaust emissions due to the creation of an internal exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) effect. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> i-VTEC introduced
continuously variable timing, which allowed it to have more than two profiles
for timing and lift, which was the limitation of previous systems. The valve
lift is still a 2-stage setup as before, but the camshaft is now rotated via
hydraulic control to advance or retard valve timing. The effect is further
optimization of torque output, especially at low RPMs. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Increased performance is one advantage of the
i-VTEC system. The torque curve is "flatter" and does not exhibit any
dips in torque that previous VTEC engines had without variable camshaft timing.
Horsepower output is up, but so is fuel economy. Optimizing combustion with
high swirl induction makes these engines even more efficient. Finally,
one unnoticed but major advantage of i-VTEC is the reduction in engine
emissions. High swirl intake and better combustion allows more precise air-fuel
ratio control. This results in substantially reduced emissions, particularly
NOx. Variable control of camshaft timing has allowed Honda to eliminate the EGR
system. Exhaust gases are now retained in the cylinder when necessary by
changing camshaft timing. This also reduces emissions without hindering
performance.</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN">3.APPLICATIONS :- </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">
Currently i-VTEC technology is available on three Honda products; </span></div>
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<span lang="EN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">2002 Honda CRV </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="EN" style="font-size: 10pt;">2002 Acura RSX</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Honda Civic 2006</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">CASE STUDY
OF ‘HONDA CIVIC 2006’ </b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">WITH 1.8 liter
ENGINE</b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The new i- VTEC system in Honda civic
2006 uses its valve timing control system to deliver acceleration performance
equivalent to a 2.0-liter engine and fuel economy approximately 6% better than
the current 1.7-liter Civic engine. During cruising, the new engine achieves
fuel economy equivalent to that of a 1.5-liter engine.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> In a conventional engine, the
throttle valve is normally partly closed under low-load conditions to control
the intake volume of the fuel-air mixture. During this time, pumping losses are
incurred due to intake resistance, and this is one factor that leads to reduced
engine efficiency. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The i-VTEC engine delays intake
valve closure timing to control the intake volume of the air-fuel mixture,
allowing the throttle valve to remain wide open even under low-load conditions
for a major reduction in pumping losses of up to 16%. Combined with
friction-reducing measures, this results in an increase in fuel efficiency for
the engine itself.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> A DBW (Drive By Wire) system
provides high-precision control over the throttle valve while the valve timing is
being changed over, delivering smooth driving performance that leaves the
driver unaware of any torque fluctuations.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Other innovations in the new VTEC
include a variable-length intake manifold to further improve intake efficiency
and piston oil jets that cool the pistons to suppress engine knock.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> In addition, lower block construction
resulting in a more rigid engine frame, aluminum rocker arms, high-strength
cracked connecting rods, a narrow, silent cam chain, and other innovations make
the engine more compact and lightweight. It is both lighter and shorter overall
than the current Civic 1.7-liter engine, and quieter as well.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">SPECIFICATIONS OF
1.8l i-VTEC ENGINE </b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Engine type and number of cylinders Water-cooled in-line 4-cylinder </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Displacement
1,799 cc </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Max power / rpm 103
kW (138 hp)/ 6300 </span></div>
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<span lang="ES" style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span lang="ES" style="font-size: 10pt;">Torque / rpm
174 Nm (128 lb-ft)/4300 </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 10pt;">Ø<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Compression ratio 10.5:1</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 8pt;">q<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">PERFORMANCE :-</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">This new engine utilizes Honda's "VTEC" technology, which
adjusts valve timing and lift based on the engine's RPM, but adds
"VTC" - Variable Timing Control - which continuously modulates the
intake valve overlap depending on engine load. The two combined yield in a
highly intelligent valve timing and lift mechanism.In addition to such
technology, improvements in the intake manifold, rearward exhaust system,
lean-burn-optimized catalytic converter help to create an engine that outputs
103kW (140PS) @ 6300rpm,and provides ample mid-range torque. It also satisfies
the year 2010 fuel efficiency standard of14.2km/Landreceives the government
standard of "LEV" .</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">4.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">FUTURE
TRENDS :- </span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">From now onwards, there is all likelihood that Honda will implement
i-VTEC on its performance engines. Again
what i-VTEC does allow is for Honda to go for the sky in terms of specific
power output but yet still maintaining a good level of mid-range power. Already
extremely authoritative reviewers like BEST motoring have complained about the
lack of a broad mid-range power from for e.g. the F20C engine. In a tight windy
circuit like Tsukuba and Ebisu, the S2000 finds it extremely tough going to overtake
the Integra Type-R in 5-lap battles despite having 50ps or 25% more power. To
get the extreme power levels of the F20C, the wild cams' power curve are so
narrow that there is effectively a big hole in the composite power curve below
6000rpm. What i-VTEC can do to this situation is to allow fine-tuning of the
power curve, to broaden it, by varying valve opening overlap. Thus this will
restore a lot of mid-range power to super-high-output DOHC VTEC engines
allowing Honda, if they so desire, to go for even higher specific outputs
without too much of a sacrifice to mid-range power. </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">5.CONCLUSION:
-
</b>i-VTEC system is more sophisticated than earlier variable-valve-timing
systems, which could only change the time both valves are open during the intake/exhaust
overlap period on the transition between the exhaust and induction strokes. By
contrast, the i-VTEC setup can alter both camshaft duration and valve
lift. i-VTEC Technology gives us the
best in vehicle performance. Fuel
economy is increased, emissions are reduced, derivability is enhanced and power
is improved.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-8511261520372555512011-09-23T17:37:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:44:41.297+05:30CRYOGENIC HEAT TREATMENT<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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</span></b>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abstract</i></b></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Cryogenic temperatures
are defined by the Cryogenic Society of America as being temperatures below
120<sup>0</sup>K (-244<sup>0</sup>F, -153<sup>0</sup>C). </span></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Durability is the most important criterion used to
define the quality of a tool steel. Cryogenic treatment and tempering of metals
has been ac- knowledge for almost thirty years as an effective method for
increasing durability, or "wear life" and decreasing residual stress
in tool steels. Deep cryogenics (below -300°F) is creating many new
applications in science. High temperature superconductors, the super-conducting
super collider, cryo-biology, magneto-hydrodynamic drive systems for ships, and
low temperature physics have all developed recently. The deep cryogenic
treatment and tempering process for metals is economical. It is a one time
permanent treatment, affecting the entire part, not just the surface. The
treatment may be applied to new or used tools, sharp or dull, and reshaping
will not destroy the imparted properties. Benefits achieved from subjecting
tools to this treatment include: increases in tensile strength, toughness, and
stability through the release of internal stresses. </span></i></div>
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<b>Cryogenic Treatment for Improved Properties</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">A research
metallurgist at the National Bureau of Standards in Boulder Colorado,
states, "When carbon precipitates form, the internal stress in the
martensite is reduced, which minimizes the susceptibility to micro cracking.
The wide distribution of very hard, fine carbides from deep cryogenic treatment
also increases wear resistance." The study concludes: "...fine carbon
carbides and resultant tight lattice structures are precipitated from cryogenic
treatment. These particles are responsible for the exceptional wear
characteristics imparted by the process, due to a denser molecular structure
and resulting larger surface area of contact, reducing friction, heat and
wear." There have been skeptics of the cryogenic process for some time,
because it imparts no apparent visible changes to the metal. Since proper heat
treating can transform 85% of the retained austenite to martensite and the deep
cryogenic process only transforms an additional 8 to 15%, the deep cryogenic
treatment has been considered an inefficient process. While these percentages
are correct, the conclusion drawn from them is inaccurate. In addition to the trans-
formation to martensite, the subjected metals also develop a more uniform,
refined microstructure with greater density. Although known to exist, this type
of microstructure was only recently quantified scientifically. Particles known
as "binders" are coupled with the precipitation of the additional micro
fine carbide "fillers". The fillers take up the remaining space in
the micro-voids, resulting in a much denser, coherent structure of the tool
steel. These particles are identified and counted in the above study cited,
using a scanning electron microscope with field particle quanti- fiction (an
automatic particle counter). It is now believed that these particles are
largely responsible for the great gains in wear resistivity. The permanent
irreversible molecular change created is uniform throughout the tool, unlike
coatings, and will last the life of the tool, regardless of any subsequent
finishing operations or regrinds.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZz3PLlApuY45X1b8HMCRXzMBOG864_rlDjHDmn4pfR0cQZRKAiZEvdx6EfbaXudiieKwsHEJxKkFU6lTRmj0elo7kiOQp7jzb5UgPoUA1KAEhrinbDmA_8JXgDkHpAuFSgI4gl1evkaBJ/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZz3PLlApuY45X1b8HMCRXzMBOG864_rlDjHDmn4pfR0cQZRKAiZEvdx6EfbaXudiieKwsHEJxKkFU6lTRmj0elo7kiOQp7jzb5UgPoUA1KAEhrinbDmA_8JXgDkHpAuFSgI4gl1evkaBJ/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fig. 1 shows two
photomicrographs (1000 x) representative of samples from the same S-7 bar
stock. The first is untreated S-7. The second was deep cryogenically treated.
Both samples initially were conventionally heat treated; that is, austenitized
and oil quenched. The deep cryogenic treatment consisted of varying ramp with
pause at -150°F for 1 hr, at -270°F for 2 hr and soaking for 8 hr at -310°F,
followed by tempering at 300°F for 1 hr, AC to room temperature and tempering
at 225°F, AC. In this micro- structure, note the considerably greater number of
fine particles coupled with fine carbides in comparison with the untreated
sample. The martensitic transformation is readily apparent.</span></div>
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<b>Deep
Cryogenic Treatment Potential</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The cryogenic cycle is
an extension of standard heat-treatment, and creates many outstanding increases
in durability. Some examples are as follows. A major aircraft manufacturer
testing deep cryogenic treatment found that with only six different tools
treated, the savings in tool purchases could exceed $5 million. An Arizona State study conducted by Laurel Hunt,
used deep treated C-2 debarring tools on INCONEL alloy 718, achieving a 400%
improvement based on weight, after five cats of .003 in. (.007 cm) on this
alloy. This deep cryogenic treatment of an 8% cobalt end mill has made dramatic
improvements in two important ways. The number of milling cats was increased
from three before deep cryogenic processing, to 78 cats after processing (26
times the wear life). Resharpening the end mills after deep cryogenic treatment
required only 1/3 the amount of stock removal to restore the tool geometry.
Rockwell, a major aircraft manufacturer, using C-2 carbide inserts to mill
epoxy graphite, doubles their output after deep cryogenic treatment of the
inserts. In a second test, a 400% improvement was achieved upon milling 4340
stainless steel with cryogenic treated tool. Other applications include:
Leading national stock car drivers who previously raced only 4-8 races between
equipment teardowns, drove in 40+ races before teardown after cryogenically
treating block, crank, cam, pistons and heads.</span></div>
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<b>Confirmation
Of Lab Results For Field Tests (Shallow Cryogenic Cycles)</b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The latest research
data on cryogenic and tempering cycle confirms the long standing theory that
cryogenic treatment significantly enhances cutting tool life. Dr. Loan
Alexandra and Dr. Constantin Picos of the Polytechnic Institute of Jassy, Romania,
utilized the latest scientific equipment available, a JEOL IXA-5A Electron
Probe, a DRON-1 X-ray Diffractometer, a Qaantimet 720 Quantitative Microscope,
and a Chevenard Differential Dilatometer to supply the following results from
the extensive study. The study involved 7 samples (A- N, Fig. 2) each subjected
to a different heat/cool cycle as noted. Each sample was the equivalent of M2
steel. The carbide particles were physically counted, both before and after the
deep cryogenic treatment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The team then measured the
samples with the equipment above, and with standard metallurgical evaluative
testing. The results confirm with tangible evidence the carbon participation in
cryogenic processing</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBpeN8vhVM9Ush5vp4SZqAN-QY10cMFmIx5UZbIlWBlmuih2HnlDOlX8aA9rhoLhuckgjQwHtpW7Ww5QM5JNAmv4_lnp9vmLsR8SXDxXxXh7qnfmGGLVYTGW6wJanYe4ZB0Svxv4u9KVlM/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBpeN8vhVM9Ush5vp4SZqAN-QY10cMFmIx5UZbIlWBlmuih2HnlDOlX8aA9rhoLhuckgjQwHtpW7Ww5QM5JNAmv4_lnp9vmLsR8SXDxXxXh7qnfmGGLVYTGW6wJanYe4ZB0Svxv4u9KVlM/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fig.
2 Standard heat treating, austenitizing, oil quenching and tempering, compared
to cycles with added cryogenic (-70°C) and tempering cycles. (Source :- Jassy
polytechnic institute / Alexandraue ).</span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fig.
3 Cryogenic and tempering cycle doubles durability, decreasing austenite while
doubling micro fine carbides. (Source :- Jassy polytechnic institute /
Alexandraue</span><i><span style="font-size: 8pt;"> )</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The results of the testing,
Fig. 3, comparing standard heat treating to heat treating with the addition of
a shallow cryogenic soak (-70°C) are summarized as follows: austenite de-
creased from 42.6% to 0.9%; martensite increased from 66% to 81.7%; car- bides
increased from 6.9% to 17.4%; mean number of carbides counted @ 1mm sq
increased from 31,358.17 to 83,529.73; number of carbides less than 1 µm
increased from 23,410.24 to 69,646.09; Rockwell increased from 60.10 to 66.10;
tensile strength in- creased from 86.0 to 244.46; bending tensile rate
increased from 0.65 to 1.85; KCU (resiliency) increased from .0668 to 1.18; HRC
after 20 minutes hold at 675°C: 56.88 to 62.25.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Durability in terms of
length of cutting time increased from 20 minutes to 45 minutes with <i>a
shallow </i>cryogenic cycle. Fig. 2 illustrates the seven separate heat/cool
cycles used to temper the lathe cutting tools. The tools were then used to cut
0.5% structural carbon steel (see Table I). Durability was established by
measuring the radical component of wear.</span></div>
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<b>Table :1 Parameters for
Lathe Cutting Tools in Wear Resistant Test</b></div>
<div align="center">
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; width: 552px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 13.35pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 13.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.15pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Intensive Speed</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 13.35pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.85pt;" valign="top" width="198"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">33.6 m/min</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 22.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.15pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Depth</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.85pt;" valign="top" width="198"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">5 mm</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 22.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.15pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Feed</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.85pt;" valign="top" width="198"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">0.62 mm per rev</span></div>
</td>
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<tr style="height: 22.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.15pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Relief Angle</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.85pt;" valign="top" width="198"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">8 Deg</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 22.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.15pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Hack Angle</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 148.85pt;" valign="top" width="198"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">5 Deg</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 22.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 22.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 265.15pt;" valign="top" width="354"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Plan</span></div>
</td>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">45 Deg</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b>Deep Cryogenic Cycle vs Shallow Cryogenic Cycle</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b> </b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Separate
laboratory testing has been accomplished by Dr. Randall F. Barron at Louisiana Tech University.
The results by Dr. Barron more than substantiated the Jassy study. In one
series of tests compared were five common steel alloys (see Fig. 4). First they
were wear tested as pro- cured, then as chilled to -120°F and finally tested
after treating at -317°F. In all cases the cold treatment improved wear
resistance; the colder the treatment, the more favorable the results. The
-120°F (dry ice) treatment improved ratios ranging from 1.2 to 2 times
depending on the alloy. This is consistent with the Jassy findings. However, the
<i>deep </i>cryogenic treatment in liquid nitrogen at -317°F soak improved wear
resistance by even greater ratios running from 2 to 6.6 times</span>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b>Process Advancement through New Equipment and
Computerization </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The deep cryogenic
process has had an Achilles heel. It has been inconsistent. In the past,
improvements to cutting tools would vary from little improvement to over 1000%
increased in useful life. The key to effective improvements consistently is
proper processing. If a cutting tool is dropped in liquid nitrogen, without
tem- perature control, the tool could shatter. Metals require specific cooling
rates; temperature changes must be controlled exactly to obtain the optimal
cooling curve. The computer processor solves the problem, since it al- lows
exact duplication of the optimal cooling curve, repeatedly. The older cryogenic
tanks did not have adequate controls. A relatively new cryogenic system (model
2953, lead illustration) achieves consistent results. The new cryogenic
machines operate with controlled dry thermal treatment. "Controlled"
simply means that the process is performed according to a precise prescribed
time table. A process controller (Yokogawa UP 25) operates the descent; soak
and ascent modes (see Fig. 5). Generally, the material is cooled slowly to
-317°F, held for 20-60 hr then raised to +300°F, and slowly returned to room
temperature. The machine switches over to the electrical resistance mode for
the tempering operation. The "dry" process prevents the metals from
being subjected to liquid nitrogen, and eliminates the placing of an item in
the freezer and pushing a button. A breakthrough in system insulation has been
achieved as a result of the space program. The system is de- signed to
accomplish thermal transfer, and the more efficient the better. It is essential
to transfer themes from the liquid nitrogen to the metal parts being treated,
without losing the therms to the outside. Thus, the vacuum chamber is designed
for three- level insulation. Walls of the chamber are 3 in. stainless steel. On
the inside wall are 125 wrapped layers of aluminized polyester film. Inside the
chamber it self is 2 in. polyisocyanurate high density foam which is coated
with Ceramaseal amorphous vapor barrier comprised of micro spherical ceramic
globes. A 93% increase in processing ability is accomplished with the
"space shuttle insulation" in the vacuum walls, providing
considerable savings in processing </span>and making the treatment economical
for a variety of items in addition to tooling. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaTfXwX4gdodHIEv05zAPPwqp_HCBmFMTYTYs2wcbYfHNM-Zq-oI860JTrNVcjUG5iajO3fK975lv9jGXsrnyoQmanGQ7GyeFR_ZizbQ6qPi_eXUyEh5HuqQsip5XWBOupdEMl_0H2GnH9/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgaTfXwX4gdodHIEv05zAPPwqp_HCBmFMTYTYs2wcbYfHNM-Zq-oI860JTrNVcjUG5iajO3fK975lv9jGXsrnyoQmanGQ7GyeFR_ZizbQ6qPi_eXUyEh5HuqQsip5XWBOupdEMl_0H2GnH9/s400/Untitled.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b>Industrial
Practice and Advantages for Heat Treaters </b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Potentially every tool heat treated is a candidate for
the additional ser- vice of cryogenic treatment and tempering. It is economical
to provide the additional improvement of any perishable item. There are more
than a handful of large tooling manufacturers utilizing the process today for
manufacturing a premium line of cutting tools. More than 200 heat treaters
provide cold cryogenic services. However, 95% of these are only utilizing
-120°F (dry ice) treatments. Only a handful of companies provide cryogenic
treatment below -300°F, which results in much more impressive results and
accompanying benefits. A small Massachusetts
firm has been processing items for 12 years. The strings on a piano which was
previously tuned every six months were treated. The piano has not been tuned
for five years. Musicians who play guitar and violin firmly believe that the
strings are brighter in sound. Oscilloscopes confirm a shift after treatment. A
firm in Michigan
has been processing with the method for 27 years. They also specialize in
stress relief of the plastic material used in contact lenses, among other
items. A cryogenic treating company in Phoenix
treats many aerospace parts. Another processor in Ohio treats many carbide tools. The
treatment is gaining acceptance nationwide. The process is used in Europe and Australia under the trade name
CryoTough, a BOC treatment.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b>CONCLUSION: </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">While not a
"Magic-Wand" which will extend the life of everything, over 100 tools
such as reamers, taps, dies, broaches, drills, end mills, slicers and cutting
knives do respond consistently to this process. Cryogenic ser- vice can create
a "premium" more profitable tool line for a manufacturer. It is also
saving considerable tool expense for the end user. The process is effective
throughout the tool un- like a coating, so tools can be resharpened and retain
the benefits of the treatment until completely worn out. The process also works
with Tin coatings.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">When a specific tool
receives wear extension, there is a 95%
certainty similar tools will respond consistently in the future to the same
exact cycle. Among the properties which define the cutting qualities of a tool
steel, durability is the highest importance. Results in this regard are
decisive in establishing the benefits of cryogenic treatment and also answer
the decades long question, "what happens when parts are tested in this
manner?"</span></div>
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<br /></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-56723456427416324862011-09-23T17:23:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:45:01.796+05:30Biogas Technology for Rural Development<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2zm-yVhyphenhyphenOQRQ-u17HPHAqFm6O7ElRXeYU0ShbAkfBEUwm75jhtukUSF5V-KLgqhGyPmCuytEIT6nX_Fqe_fxUS_FXT5W7VIu7kFvnclZJg6OusBxOGEIKBzayiZIira2zXkF3hevC-a9c/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Abstract</span></i></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoBodyText2" style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="CM15" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
The utilization of microbial activity to treat agricultural,
industrial, and domestic wastes has been common practice for a half century. In
recent years, biogas systems have attracted considerable attention as a
promising approach to decentralized rural development. Developed and developing
countries and several international organizations have shown interest in biogas
systems with respect to various objectives: a renewable source of energy,
bio-fertilizer, waste recycling, rural development, public health and hygiene,
pollution control, environmental management, appropriate technology, and
technical cooperation. This paper provides an overview of biogas technology and
opportunities to use this technology in livestock facilities across the ruler
area. First, a brief description of biogas technology is provided. Then the
benefits of biogas technology are discussed. Finally, the experience and status
of biogas technology development in the India are described. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Keywords-
Biogas, Fermentation, Methane, Rural Energy, Renewable Energy</span></i></div>
<h2 style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></h2>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span>Introduction</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Developing-country rural areas have a variety of
available biomass materials, including fuel wood, agricultural wastes, and
animal wastes. In particular, many countries have large cattle and buffalo
herds, whose considerable wastes have much energy potential. Traditionally,
these wastes are carefully collected in India and used as fertilizer,
except in places where villagers are forced by the scarcity of fuel wood to
burn dung-cakes as cooking fuel. Since biogas plants yield sludge fertilizer,
the biogas fuel and/or electricity generated is a valuable additional bonus. It
is this bonus output that has motivated the large biogas programmes in a number
of developing countries, particularly India</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Rural energy planning requires choices among energy
technologies. Up to the day, the choices have been confined to centralized
energy supply technologies - power plants based on hydroelectricity, coal, oil,
or natural gas. The problem is local and global environmental degradation. It
has, therefore, become essential to extend the list of technological alternatives
for energy decision-making to include decentralized sources of supply.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="CM15" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Biogas</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Biogas is actually a mixture of gases, usually carbon
dioxide and methane. It is produced by a few kinds of microorganisms, usually
when air or oxygen is absent. (The absence of oxygen is called "anaerobic
conditions.") Animals that eat a lot of plant material, particularly
grazing animals such as cattle, produce large amounts of biogas. The biogas is
produced not by the cows themselves, but by billions of microorganisms living
in their digestive systems. Biogas also develops in bogs and at the bottom of
lakes, where decaying organic matter builds up under wet and anaerobic
conditions.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Besides
being able to live without oxygen, methane-producing microorganisms have
another special feature: They are among the very few creatures that can digest
cellulose, the main ingredient of plant fibres. Another special feature of
these organisms is that they are very sensitive to conditions in their
environment, such as temperature, acidity, the amount of water, etc.</span></div>
<div class="CM15" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Methane, which is the main constituent a colourless,
odourless, inflammable gas, it has been referred to as sewerage gas, klar gas,
marsh gas, refuse-derived fuel (RDF), sludge gas, will-o'-the-wisp of marsh lands,
fool's fire, gobar gas (cow dung gas), bioenergy, and "fuel of the
future." The gas mixture produced is composed roughly of 65 percent CH<sub>4</sub>,
30 percent CO<sub>2</sub>, and 1 per cent H<sub>2</sub>S. A thousand cubic feet
of processed biogas is equivalent to 600 cubic feet of natural gas, 6.4 gallons
of butane, 5.2 gallons of gasoline, or 4.6 gallons of diesel oil. For cooking
and lighting, a family of four would consume 150 cubic feet of biogas per day,
an amount that is easily generated from the family's night soil and the dung of
three cows. In addition, rural housewives using the biofuel are spared the
irritating smoke resulting from the combustion of firewood; cattle dung cakes,
and the detritus of raw vegetables</div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">3.
History of Biogas</b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">People have been using biogas for over 200 years. In
the days before electricity, biogas was drawn from the underground sewer pipes
in London and
burned in street lamps, which were known as "gaslights." In many
parts of the world, biogas is used to heat and light homes, to cook, and even
to fuel buses. It is collected from large-scale sources such as landfills and
pig barns, and through small domestic or community systems in many villages.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The decomposition breaks down the organic matter,
releasing various gases. The main gases released are methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide. Bacteria carry out the decomposition or
fermentation. The conditions for creating biogas have to be anaerobic that is
without any air and in the presence of water. The organic waste matter is
generally animal or cattle dung, plant wastes, etc. These waste products
contain carbohydrates, proteins and fat material that are broken down by
bacteria. The waste matter is soaked in
water to give the bacteria a proper medium to grow. Absence of air or oxygen is </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">important
for decomposition because bacteria then take oxygen from the waste material
itself and in the process break them down. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h1 style="text-align: justify;">
4.
Biogas is a Form of Renewable Energy</h1>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height: normal;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Flammable biogas can be collected using a simple tank, as shown here.
Animal manure is stored in a closed tank where the gas accumulates. It makes an
excellent fuel for cook stoves and furnaces, and can be used in place of
regular natural gas, which is a fossil fuel. Biogas is considered to be a
source of renewable energy. This is because the production of biogas depends on
the supply of grass, which usually grows back each year. By comparison, the
natural gas used in most of our homes is not considered a form of renewable
energy. Natural gas formed from the fossilized remains of plants and animals-a
process that took millions of years. These resources do not "grow
back" in a time scale that is meaningful for humans</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2zm-yVhyphenhyphenOQRQ-u17HPHAqFm6O7ElRXeYU0ShbAkfBEUwm75jhtukUSF5V-KLgqhGyPmCuytEIT6nX_Fqe_fxUS_FXT5W7VIu7kFvnclZJg6OusBxOGEIKBzayiZIira2zXkF3hevC-a9c/s1600/Untitled.png" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2zm-yVhyphenhyphenOQRQ-u17HPHAqFm6O7ElRXeYU0ShbAkfBEUwm75jhtukUSF5V-KLgqhGyPmCuytEIT6nX_Fqe_fxUS_FXT5W7VIu7kFvnclZJg6OusBxOGEIKBzayiZIira2zXkF3hevC-a9c/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a><br />
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Biogas generation cycle</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">There are two types of bio gas plants that are used in India. These
plants mainly use cattle dung called “gobar” and are hence called gobar gas
plant. Generally a slurry is made from cattle dung and water, which forms the
starting material for these plants. </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent2" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The two types of bio gas plants are<br />
1. Floating gas-holder type </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">2. Fixed dome type</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Floating
gasholder type of plant: The diagram below shows the details of a floating
gasholder type of bio gas plant. A well is made out of concrete. This is called
the digester tank T. It is divided into two parts. One side has the inlet, from
where slurry is fed to the tank. The tank has a cylindrical dome H made of
stainless steel that floats on the slurry and collects the gas generated. Hence
the name given to this type of plant is floating gas holder type of bio gas
plant. The slurry is made to ferment for about 50 days. As more gas is made by
the bacterial fermentation, the pressure inside H increases. The gas can be
taken out through outlet pipe V. The
decomposed matter expands and overflows into the next chamber in tank T. This is then removed by the outlet pipe to
the overflow tank and is used as manure for cultivation purposes.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><br /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">5.
Energy in Biogas</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> The
main problem in the economic evaluation is to allocate a suitable monetary
value to the non-commercial fuels, which have so far no market prices. For the
majority of rural households biogas is primarily a means of supplying energy
for daily cooking and for lighting. They use mainly firewood, dried cow dung
and harvest residues as fuel. But even if the particular household does not
purchase the required traditional fuel, it's value can be calculated with the
help of fuel prices on the local market. Theoretically, the firewood collector
of the family could sell the amount that is no longer needed in the household </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> As
an example, the rural households in India use the following quantities
of non-commercial fuel per capita daily: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> -
firewood: 0.62 kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> -
dried cow dung: 0.34 kg</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> -
harvest residues: 0.20 kg </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">For rural households in the People's Republic of China the daily
consumption of </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> firewood
is similar: between 0.55 - 0.83 kg per person. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Which
sources of energy have been used so far and to what extent they can be replaced
must be determined for the economic evaluation of biogas by means of calorific
value relations. The monetary benefits of biogas depend mainly on how far
commercial fuels can be replaced and their respective price on the market. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> 1
m3 Biogas (approx. 6 kWh/m3) is equivalent to: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Diesel,
Kerosene (approx. 12 kWh/kg) 0.5 kg </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Wood
(approx. 4.5 kWh/kg) 1.3 kg </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Cow
dung (approx. 5 kWh/kg dry matter) 1.2 kg </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Plant
residues (approx. 4.5 kWh/kg d.m.) 1.3 kg </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Hard
coal (approx. 8.5 kWh/kg) 0.7 kg </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> City
gas (approx. 5.3 kWh/m3) 1.1 m3 </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Propane
(approx. 25 kWh/m3) 0.24 m3</span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></h2>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; tab-stops: .5in;">
6. The Benefits for Biogas</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Individual
households judge the profitability of biogas plants primarily from the monetary
surplus gained from utilizing biogas and bio-fertilizer in relation to the cost
of the plants. The following effects, to be documented and provided with a
monetary value, should be listed as benefits: expenditure saved by the
substitution of other energy sources with biogas. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> If
applicable, income from the sale of biogas; expenditure saved by the
substitution of mineral fertilizers with bio-fertilizer. Increased yield by
using bio-fertilizer. If applicable, income from the sale of bio-fertilizer;
savings in the cost of disposal and treatment of substrates (mainly for
waste-water treatment); time saved for collecting and preparing previously used
fuel materials (if applicable), time saved for work in the stable and for
spreading manure (if this time can be used to generate income). Monetarizing
individual benefits The economic evaluation of the individual benefits of
biogas plants is relatively simple if the users cover their energy and fertilizer
demands commercially. In general, the monetary benefits from biogas plants for
enterprises and institutions as well as from plants for well-to-do households
should be quite reliably calculable. These groups normally purchase commercial
fuels e.g. oil, gas and coal as well as mineral fertilizers. In industrialized
countries, it is common practice to feed surplus electric energy, produced by
biogas-driven generators, in the grid. Biogas slurry is a marketable product
and the infrastructure allows it's transport at reasonable cost. Furthermore,
treatment of waste and waste water is strictly regulated by law, causing
communes, companies and farmers expenses which, if reduced with the help of
biogas technology, are directly calculable benefits. In contrast, small farmers
in developing countries collect and use mostly traditional fuels and
fertilizers like wood, harvest residues and cow dung. No direct monetary
savings can be attributed to the use of biogas and bio-fertilizer. The monetary
value of biogas has to be calculated through the time saved for collecting
fuel, the monetary value for bio-fertilizer through the expected increase in
crop yields. Both in theory and in practice, this is problematic. In practice,
a farmer would not value time for fuel collection very highly as it is often
done by children or by somebody with low or no opportunity costs for his/her
labor. In theory, it is difficult to define the value of unskilled labor.
Similarly, the improved fertilizing value of biogas slurry will not be accepted
by most farmers as a basis for cost-benefit analysis. They tend to judge the
quality of slurry when counting the bags after harvest. Because a monetary
calculation is not the only factor featuring in the decision to construct and
operate a biogas plant, other factors come in which are less tangible:
convenience, comfort, status, security of supply and others that could be
subsumed under 'life quality'. Acceptance by the target group Besides the
willingness and ability to invest considerable funds in biogas technology,
there is a complex process of decision making involved when moving from
traditional practices to a 'modern' way of producing fertilizer and acquiring energy. Hopes and fears, expected
reactions from the society, previous experiences with modern technology, all
these feature in a decision. For a biogas program, it is important to realize
that economic considerations are only part of the deciding factors in favor or
against biogas technology. All these factors can be subsumed under acceptance.
Acceptance is not a collection of irrational, economically unjustifiable pros
and cons that a biogas extension project is called upon to dissolve. Rural
households, as a rule, take rational decisions. But rural households and biogas
programs often have information deficits that lead to non-acceptance of biogas
technology by the target groups. Bridging this information gap from the farmer
to the project and vice versa is a precondition for demonstrating the economic
viability in a way that is understandable, relevant and acceptable to the
farmer. </span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="line-height: normal; tab-stops: .5in;">
7. Biogas programs</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Biogas
programs, however, should not neglect the argument of improved yields. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Increases in agricultural production as a result of
the use of bio-fertilizer of 6 - 10 % and in some cases of up to 20 % have been
reported. Although improved yields through biogas slurry are difficult to
capture in a stringent economic calculation, for demonstration and
farmer-to-farmer extension they are very effective. Farmers should be
encouraged to record harvests on their plots, before and after the introduction
of biogas. Statements of farmers like: "Since I use biogas slurry, I can
harvest two bags of maize more on this plot" may not convince economists,
but they are well understood by farmers. </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText3" style="line-height: normal;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> As mentioned earlier, to tap the
potential of various renewable resources of energy, a variety of technology
dissemination programmes are being implemented by the government in active
collaboration with NGOs (non-governmental organizations), like TERI. In the last
two decades, complexities in rural energy planning have been seriously
considered and linked with overall development planning by way of decentralized
planning. Programmes are being implemented at block level, such as the IREP
(Integrated Rural Energy Programme), which was coordinated by the Energy Cell
of the Planning Commission. The MNES earlier started with village-level
planning and implementation of projects. Later, it attempted to develop a
methodology for district-level energy planning in select districts of the
country. In order to be more effective in implementation as well as
administration of energy activities, the MNES has now chosen to devise energy
plans at the block level. The studies are being undertaken in select 100 blocks
in different states.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">8.
Conclusions-</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .25in; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img height="7" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="13" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> Biomass is available all round the year. It
is cheap, widely available, easy to transport,<br />
store, and has no environmental hazards.<br />
<img height="7" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="13" /> It can be obtained from plantation of land
having no competitive use.<br />
<img height="7" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="13" /> Biomass-based power generation systems, linked
to plantations on wasteland, simultaneously address the vital issues of
wastelands development, environmental restoration, rural employment generation,
and generation of power with no distribution losses.<br />
<img height="7" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="13" /> It can be combined with production of other
useful products, making it an attractive<br />
byproduct.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8890010187010713283" name="Conclusion"></a></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;"><img height="7" src="file:///C:/Users/a/AppData/Local/Temp/msohtmlclip1/01/clip_image006.jpg" width="13" /></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10pt;">Biogas,
although typically used for heating and cooking, can also be used to fuel a
genset to produce electricity. 3.4 million biogas digesters are in daily use in
India,
and smaller </span></div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com12tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-55171193566387871122011-09-23T16:02:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:45:18.986+05:30HYBRID CAR – NEED OF DAY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"> ABSTRACT </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
In this paper, a unique technology
of HYBRID CAR is discussed which has high efficiency and hence is
environment-friendly.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
In daily
routine we come across different types of cars which are large in number. These
are not called hybrid cars because they are running by single source of energy
which may be petrol or diesel. In HYBRID CAR, two energy sources are used one
is petrol / diesel / gas and another one is electric batteries. These two
sources are stimulated by a unique device called as “Power Split Device” which
is responsible for maximization of fuel economy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
All plus points of these both
sources are accumulated to get maximum efficiency which is nearly double than
the other cars and tail-pipe emission is reduced by 90% approximately.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
These cars have unique place in
automobile market because drawbacks of insufficient sunlight (in monsoon days)
in case of solar car and frequent recharging of batteries in electrical cars
(like REVA) are solved in this model.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">1. INTRODUCTION </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
Automobiles are inseparable part of
our daily routine which consume fuel. This fuel is also a big question before
human being as it is limited in stock. It also causes pollution which is
responsible for drastic changes in biological clock.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
Hence, some research works are in
process to make car run on non-conventional energy sources like sunlight. But
yet, man has not succeeded to replace present technology. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
Hybrid cars use both electric
batteries and fossil fuels for its working simultaneously which leads to
somewhat complex technology where it makes use of advanced electronic and
electrical circuit. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
TOYOTA has brought a practical solution in
the form of “TOYOTA PRIUS” which can solve problem to some extent and alleviate
pollution.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">2. WHY SUCH COMPLEX TECHNOLOGY IS REQUIRED?</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
Now a day advanced cars are
available which are capable to accelerate to 100kmph within few seconds. Such
cars are full of luxury but fuel efficiency is very low, more over they create
pollution also.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
Now such situation is prevailing
that fuel economy has to be maximized and pollution has to be minimized. In
case of conventional cars, fuel economy is less and contribution to pollution
is large. Some research works are going on to make car run on solar energy and
electrical batteries but in this case one has to compromise over luxuries
provided by other cars. Hence some unique technology is required which will
give higher fuel economy, less pollution and no compromise over luxuries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">3. ENGINE STRUCTURE </span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7MDims9cBDwzi5V-80tGMT-V6ZfAHGGLZALPaMQRiMSRetpE-Kg6UnSTBEIB1m6ViwjjKQPAnYXXhB13aNLoPCNw-loOdhvaST-FUJx6oFinGptZcWXKuN5MThAB7c8tM__IZRHcVuy4H/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="183" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7MDims9cBDwzi5V-80tGMT-V6ZfAHGGLZALPaMQRiMSRetpE-Kg6UnSTBEIB1m6ViwjjKQPAnYXXhB13aNLoPCNw-loOdhvaST-FUJx6oFinGptZcWXKuN5MThAB7c8tM__IZRHcVuy4H/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="height: 331px; left: -15px; position: relative; top: 0px; width: 576px; z-index: 251657728;"></span><br />
Two different types of
structures are available in hybrid car technology. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
One is parallel
technology and the other is series technology.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
Fig
3 . 1</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In
parallel structure, there is fuel tank to supply petrol but it also has set of
batteries to supply power to electrical motors. Here, both sources are used for
transmission at same time.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In
series, petrol engine turns a generator, which either can charge batteries or
provide power to the electric motor that performs the transmission.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRSBpE9mDrA5QOmGD27RslfvMa7IaqNCHgWnmud6ku_-gOe12cGCpC-ZooHzFBYQ7zxrdyV9dBQl6c3tu9V04aDseouFHpUl2CQSKaEXIkPamGC47RJBgGczLBeBrY2jCWPttaWWBnd4bz/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="187" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgRSBpE9mDrA5QOmGD27RslfvMa7IaqNCHgWnmud6ku_-gOe12cGCpC-ZooHzFBYQ7zxrdyV9dBQl6c3tu9V04aDseouFHpUl2CQSKaEXIkPamGC47RJBgGczLBeBrY2jCWPttaWWBnd4bz/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
Fig. 3 . 2</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">4. ENGINE COMPONENTS </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Various
components used in this HYBRID CAR are as follows:-</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4.1<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">HYBRID SYSTEM</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
It is a complex technology that runs on electricity at lower
speeds when the engine is less efficient and switches to petrol only after it
picks up speed.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l0 level2 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4.2<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">BEAMS
</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">(BREAK through ENGINE with ADVANCED
MECHANISM SYSTEM)</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
BEAMS powers hybrids system. It is highly efficient system
that is INZ-FXE-1500cc, 58bhp, four
cylinders and petrol unit with VVT-T. The engine on a hybrid car will be
smaller and will use advanced technologies to reduce emissions and increase
efficiency.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4.3<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">MOTOR GENERATOR</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
This electric motor is very sophisticated. Advanced
electrical technology allows it to act as motor as well as generator. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4.4<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">METAL HYDRIDE BATTERIES </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
These batteries are similar to those in conventional
flashlights. They are placed behind the rear seat. They last for about 2,40,000
km before they need replacement and never have to stop for recharge.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; mso-list: l2 level2 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4.5<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">FUEL TANK </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
The fuel tank in a hybrid car is the energy storage device
for the petrol engine. Petrol has a much higher energy density than batteries
do.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">5. HOW
TECHNOLOGY WORKS? </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
Petrol and electric cars have two things to be noticed:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>Petrol engine gives optimum performance with
minimum tail-pipe emission at moderate engine speed only, and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span>In electric car tail-pipe emission is zero as it
runs on batteries but its speed range is very low.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
This technology works on a HYBRID SYSTEM that is in
communication with both petrol engine and batteries, and consists of generator,
electric motor as transmission system.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">6. WHAT MAKES SYSTEM EFFICIENT?</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">
The efficiency of
the hybrid technology depends on following factors:-</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.1 DIFFERENT SPEED
RANGES </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.1.1 Speed range: - 0 kmph</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
This speed range indicates that a vehicle is just started.
Petrol engine is used to start the car propulsion system, after several
seconds, the engine warms up all the car system. The petrol engine shuts off,
there by minimizing tail-pipe emission.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.1.2 Speed range: - 0 – 20 kmph</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
At this speed range, petrol engine is completely shut off and
the drive is powered by batteries at slow speed. Thus at this speed range,
tail-pipe emission is zero.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
If we compare the same speed range of petrol engine, we can
see that the tail-pipe emissions are maximum as specific fuel consumption is
high.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.1.3 Speed range: - 20-60 kmph (moderate
speed)</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
At moderate speed, the petrol engine takes over the charge
and car runs only on petrol propulsion system. But again, tail pipe emissions
are minimum as the engine is running at a speed of about 3000 to 3500 rpm.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.1.4 Speed range: - Above 60 kmph</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
At very high speeds, additional power is required which is
supplied by the electric motor, which gets it power from battery. In this case,
also the petrol engine is still running at moderate speed at 3000 to 3500 rpm.
And tail-pipe emission to lowest possible value. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.2 POWER SPLIT DEVICE</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Decision of which energy source
is to be used is taken by a unique device called as power split device. This
allows engine to stay in its most efficient mode and speed range most of the
time.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
PSD has a clever gear box that hooks the petrol engine, generator and
electric motor together. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6.3 RECOVERY OF ENERGY AND STORAGE IN THE BATTERY </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; tab-stops: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
Whenever
breaks are applied to moving car, actually energy is removed from the brake.
Faster the car is moving, the more kinetic energy it has. The brakes of a car
remove this energy and dissipate it in the form of heat. A HYBRID CAR can
capture some of this energy and store it in the batteries to use it later. It
does this by using “regenerative braking”. Instead of just using the brake to
stop the car, the electric motor that drives the hybrid can also slow the car.
In this mode, the electric motor acts as a generator and charges the batteries
while the car is slowing down. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></b><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">7. SPECIAL FEATURES </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">7.1<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Recharging of batteries during deceleration
and braking:-</b> The problem of recharging the batteries is completely
eliminated in this system. Here batteries are charged by generator during
gradual deceleration period.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 27.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">7.2<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">At signals and short stops:-</b> If this
system has to stop at signals its exhaust emission are zero and when traffic
crawls, car is powered by electric motor only. This feature is very suitable
for roads in India.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 27.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">7.3<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Control on air fuel ratio:-</b> In
conventional fuel engine, air-fuel ratio varies according to load on it. When
this is rich in percentage of fuel is more in air fuel mixture that causes
higher tail pipe emission. Hence in this system air fuel ratio is kept
constant.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 27.0pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-list: l1 level2 lfo4; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">7.4<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">During acceleration:-</b> When the speed of
car increase above 120 kmph the engine works in tandem with the electric motor
– it kicks in like a super charger to gain optimal power with optimum fuel
economy at a continuous speed.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">8. ADVANTAGES OF USING HYBRID SYSTEM </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8.1<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Environment friendliness: -</b> The car
equipped with hybrid system emits only half the CO<span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%;">2 </span>of a regular 1.5 ltr.
Engine and reduces other tail pipe emissions by 90%. In this way it reduces the
problem of air pollution to a large extent and protects nature</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8.2<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Recharging facilities of the battery:-</b>
Unlike electric car batteries are not required to be charged at regular
interval as the hybrid system. It self generates the supply of kinetic energy
from braking that is converted into electricity, which keeps them recharged.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8.3<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Less noise: -</b> The hybrid system uses the
quite engine and electric motor which makes no noise during the operation
reducing the sound pollution as well.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8.4<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Optimum fuel efficiency :-</b> This system
results in the ultra efficient fuel consumption level which is nearly, twice
the fuel efficiency of conventional petrol engine cars.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo5; tab-stops: list .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8.5<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Economical aspects: -</b> Initial cost of
this technology is high but process of mass production will certainly reduce
its initial cost to such a level that it will even beat the conventional fuel
cars. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
Again its working cost is nearly half than that of the
conventional cost. Thus, it will be
greatly economical.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;">9. CONCLUSION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
As discussed
in the earlier pages, the conventional fuel cars are the main source of
environmental pollution, about 60% of the air pollution is done by automobiles
and they also have large contribution in sound pollution. Electric cars are
invented to overcome air and sound pollution but due to some inherent
limitations of electric cars (like recharging of batteries etc.) their use is
limited.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;">
Hybrid
propulsion system may not be a complete solution to reduce pollution as it uses
fuel, but the overall concept is most significant than other ones. In other
words, car running on the hybrid system are most successful “ENVIRONMENT -
FRIENDLY” in the world of automobiles.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-44853970550475070792011-09-23T15:35:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:45:47.992+05:30GEOTHERMAL ENERGY<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> INTRODUCTION</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
"Geothermal"
comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermal (heat). So, geothermal means
earth heat. The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called
geothermal energy. Geothermal heat originates from earth’s fiery consolidation
of dust and gas over four billion years ago. The geothermal energy is enormous
and will last for several millions of years and is therefore called renewable. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">EARTH’S HEAT AND VOLCANIC REGIONS</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
It
is almost 6,500 kilometers (4,000 miles) from the surface to the center of the
Earth, and the deeper you go, the hotter it gets. The outer layer, the crust,
is three to 35 miles thick and insulates us from the hot interior. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
From
the surface down through the crust the normal temperature gradient (the
increase of temperature with the increase of depth) in the Earth’s crust is 17
- 30°C per kilometer of depth (50-87°F per mile). Below the crust is the
mantle, made of highly viscous, partially molten rock with temperatures between
650 and 1,250°C (1,200-2,280°F). At Earth's core, which consists of a liquid
outer core and a solid inner core, temperatures may reach 4,000-7,000°C (7,200
to 12,600°F). </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Since
heat always moves from hotter regions to colder regions, the Earth’s heat flows
from its interior toward the surface. This outward flow of heat from Earth’s
interior drives convective motion in the mantle rock which in turn drives plate
tectonics -- the "drift" of Earth's crustal plates that occurs at 1
to 5 cm per year (about the rate our fingernails grow). Where plates move
apart, magma rises up into the rift, forming new crust. Where plates collide,
one plate is generally forced (subducted) beneath the other. As a subducted
plate slides slowly downward into regions of ever-increasing heat, it can reach
conditions of pressure, temperature and water content that cause melting,
forming magma. Plumes of magma ascend by buoyancy and force themselves up into
(intrude) the crust, bringing up vast quantities of heat. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">HOW DOES GEOTHERMAL HEAT GET UP TO EARTH'S
SURFACE?</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
The
heat from the earth's core continuously flows outward. It transfers (conducts)
to the surrounding layer of rock, the mantle. When temperatures and pressures
become high enough, some mantle rock melts, becoming magma. Then, because it is
lighter (less dense) than the surrounding rock, the magma rises (convects),
moving slowly up toward the earth's crust, carrying the heat from below. </div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Understanding
geothermal energy begins with an understanding of the source of this energy—the
earth’s internal heat. The Earth’s temperature increases with depth, with the
temperature at the center reaching more than 4200 °C (7600 °F). A portion of
this heat is a relic of the planet’s formation about 4.5 billion years ago, and
a portion is generated by the continuing decay of radioactive isotopes. Heat
naturally moves from hotter to cooler regions, so Earth’s heat flows from its
interior toward the surface.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Because
the geologic processes known as plate tectonics, the Earth’s crust has been
broken into 12 huge plates that move apart or push together at a rate of
millimeters per year. Where two plates collide, one plate can thrust below the
other, producing extraordinary phenomena such as ocean trenches or strong
earthquakes. At great depth, just above the down going plate, temperatures
become high enough to melt rock, forming magma.3 Because magma is less dense
than surrounding rocks, it moves up toward the earth’s crust and carries heat
from below. Sometimes magma rises to the surface through thin or fractured
crust as lava.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
However, most
magma remains below earth’s crust and heats the surrounding rocks and
subterranean water. Some of this water comes all the way up to the surface
through faults and cracks in the earth as hot springs or geysers. When this
rising hot water and steam is trapped in permeable rocks under a layer of
impermeable rocks, it is called a geothermal reservoir. These reservoirs are
sources of geothermal energy that can potentially be tapped for electricity
generation or direct use. Figure 1 is a schematic of a typical geothermal power
plant showing the location of magma and a geothermal reservoir.4 Here, the
production well withdraws heated geothermal fluid, and the injection well
returns cooled fluids to the reservoir. </div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">RESOURCE IDENTIFICATION </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Geological,
hydrogeological, geophysical, and geochemical techniques are used to identify
and quantify geothermal resources. Geological and hydrogeological studies involve
mapping any hot springs or other surface thermal features and the
identification of favorable geological structures. These studies are used to
recommend where production wells can be drilled with the highest probability of
tapping into the geothermal resource. Geophysical surveys are implemented to
figure the shape, size, depth and other important characteristics of the deep
geological structures by using the following parameters: temperature (thermal
survey), electrical conductivity (electrical and electromagnetic methods),
propagation velocity of elastic waves (seismic survey), density (gravity
survey), and magnetic susceptibility (magnetic survey).5 Geochemical surveys
(including isotope geochemistry) are a useful means of determining whether the geothermal
system is water or vapor-dominated, of estimating the minimum temperature
expected at depth, of estimating the homogeneity of the water supply and, of
determining the source of recharge water.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Geothermal
exploration addresses at least nine objectives:6 </div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Identification of geothermal phenomena </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Ascertaining that a useful geothermal production
field exists</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Estimation of the size of the resource</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Classification of the geothermal field</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Location of productive zones</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Determination of the heat content of the fluids that
will be discharged by the wells in the geothermal field</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Compilation of a body of data against which the
results of future monitoring can be viewed</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Assessment of the pre-exploitation values of
environmentally sensitive parameters</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Determination of any characteristics that might cause
problems during field development </li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">DRILLING</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Once
potential geothermal resources have been identified, exploratory drilling is
carried out to further quantify the resource. Because of the high temperature
and corrosive nature of geothermal fluids, as well as the hard and abrasive
nature of reservoir rocks found in geothermal environments, geothermal drilling
is much more difficult and expensive than conventional petroleum drilling. Each
geothermal well costs $1–4 million to drill, and a geothermal field may consist
of 10–100 wells. Drilling can account for 30–50% of a geothermal project’s
total cost.</div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: yellow;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Typically, geothermal wells are drilled to
depths ranging rom 200 to 1,500 meters depth for low- and medium-temperature
systems, and from 700 to 3,000 meters depth for high-temperature systems. Wells
can be drilled vertically or at an angle. Wells are drilled in a series of
stages, with each stage being of smaller diameter than the previous stage, and
each being secured by steel casings, which are cemented in place before
drilling the subsequent stage. The final production sections of the well use an
uncemented perforated liner, allowing the geothermal fluid to pass into the
pipe. The objectives of this phase are to prove the existence of an exploitable
resource and to delineate the extent and the characteristics of the resource.
An exploratory drilling program may include shallow temperature-gradient wells,
“slim-hole” exploration wells, and production-sized exploration/production
wells. Temperature-gradient wells are often drilled from 2–200 meters in depth
with diameters of 50–150 mm. Slim-hole exploration wells are usually drilled
from 200 to 3000 meters in depth with bottom-hole diameters of 100 to 220 mm.
The size and objective of the development will determine the number and type of
wells to be included in exploratory drilling programs</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">APPLICATIONS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1. POWER GENERATION:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Utility-scale
geothermal power production employs three main technologies. These are known as
dry steam, flash steam and binary cycle systems. The technology employed
depends on the temperature and pressure of the geothermal reservoir. Unlike
solar, wind, and hydro-based renewable power, geothermal power plant operation
is independent of fluctuations in daily and seasonal weather.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">DRY STEAM:</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Dry
steam power plants use very hot (>455 °F, or >235 °C) steam and little
water from the geothermal reservoir.12 The steam goes directly through a pipe
to a turbine to spin a generator that produces electricity. This type of
geothermal power plant is the oldest, first being used at Lardarello, Italy, in
1904.13 Figure 2 is a schematic of a typical dry steam power plant.14</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_nRQU2AGzf1ktr5JUmpq9OyQj9_0g8V35qJ_4VvgM_0I4ztKOxquDzWUVoqj9CaIKDKeNjw9gFLHGItZqJrq7YJQm_JaYxHmVRm9EluvA7xBMJLXEx5qxqmDoZduSB7Qc4zfXv1FjpTFA/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_nRQU2AGzf1ktr5JUmpq9OyQj9_0g8V35qJ_4VvgM_0I4ztKOxquDzWUVoqj9CaIKDKeNjw9gFLHGItZqJrq7YJQm_JaYxHmVRm9EluvA7xBMJLXEx5qxqmDoZduSB7Qc4zfXv1FjpTFA/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br />
Figure 1. Dry Steam Power Plant Schematic <br />
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">FLASH STEAM </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Flash
steam power plants use hot water (>360 ºF, or >182 ºC) from the
geothermal reservoir.15 When the water is pumped to the generator, it is
released from the pressure of the deep reservoir. The sudden drop in pressure
causes some of the water to vaporize to steam, which spins a turbine to
generate electricity. Both dry steam and flash steam power plants emit small
amounts of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and sulfur, but generally 50 times
less than traditional fossil-fuel power plants.16 Hot water not flashed into
steam is returned to the geothermal reservoir through injection wells. Figure 3
is a schematic of a typical flash steam power plant.17</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4ficWHLA1ElVwJj-1VVsntQHtGAzamG6hWVJq_AB31k97KmvzjO9Fs5MVlNuDWFYQkuaX1cdLwpKrhtz5AW7S4m2LH1uGLaJy4uN8FyG_NUMEPE_IzQunTHGs8iNRblWK0GVwRqQtqtWv/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4ficWHLA1ElVwJj-1VVsntQHtGAzamG6hWVJq_AB31k97KmvzjO9Fs5MVlNuDWFYQkuaX1cdLwpKrhtz5AW7S4m2LH1uGLaJy4uN8FyG_NUMEPE_IzQunTHGs8iNRblWK0GVwRqQtqtWv/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
Figure
2. Flash Steam Power Plant Schematic</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">BINARY-CYCLE</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Binary-cycle
power plants use moderate-temperature water (225 ºF–360 ºF, or 107 ºC–182 ºC)
from the geothermal reservoir. In binary systems, hot geothermal fluids are
passed through one side of a heat exchanger to heat a working fluid in a
separate adjacent pipe. The working fluid, usually an organic compound with a
low boiling point such as Iso-butane or Iso-pentane, is vaporized and passed
through a turbine to generate electricity. An ammonia-water working fluid is
also used in what is known as the Kalina Cycle. Makers claim that the Kalina
Cycle system boosts geothermal plant efficiency by 20–40 percent and reduces
plant construction costs by 20–30 percent, thereby lowering the cost of
geothermal power generation.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSTLSKbESn_T8YXLGAOGZ2vq6lLD0sjjncg106WhLR0w3VWuxW7Z7vLUjdXKrXNqfSrjMjKXYVHDtvflJiI16PGsQMrMTkfw9QWareCVdiZOywLCfMScJlCEOgteVIXiS35T8vhtYQOSlU/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiSTLSKbESn_T8YXLGAOGZ2vq6lLD0sjjncg106WhLR0w3VWuxW7Z7vLUjdXKrXNqfSrjMjKXYVHDtvflJiI16PGsQMrMTkfw9QWareCVdiZOywLCfMScJlCEOgteVIXiS35T8vhtYQOSlU/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
Figure
4. Binary Cycle Power Plant Schematic <br />
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
The
advantages of binary cycle systems are that the working fluid boils at a lower
temperature than water does, so electricity can be generated from reservoirs
with lower temperature, and the binary cycle system is self-contained and
therefore, produces virtually no emissions. For these reasons, some geothermal
experts believe binary cycle systems could be the dominant geothermal power
plants of the future. Figure 4 is a schematic of a typical binary cycle power
plant.18</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2. GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS</b>:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
The
shallow ground, the upper 10 feet of the Earth, maintains a nearly constant
temperature between 50° and 60°F (10°–16°C). Like a cave, this ground
temperature is warmer than the air above it in the winter and cooler than the
air in the summer. Geothermal heat pumps take advantage of this resource to
heat and cool buildings. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Geothermal heat
pump systems consist of basically three parts: the ground heat exchanger, the
heat pump unit, and the air delivery system (ductwork). The heat exchanger is
basically a system of pipes called a loop, which is buried in the shallow
ground near the building. A fluid (usually water or a mixture of water and
antifreeze) circulates through the pipes to absorb or relinquish heat within
the ground. </div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3s32a1DhiMmRzwgLWW3DV_0wGwHO6lFUigzJkm5goTyrP5gu3LDNAU3ewwb_0GXvtzqU19KYCSq8oygZ_oUdXiD5LzzPr6pZ2QLmjRSZJIbWW1jjYcaaNbYndOaXkV5CCKnMJzp6OlTTz/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="86" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3s32a1DhiMmRzwgLWW3DV_0wGwHO6lFUigzJkm5goTyrP5gu3LDNAU3ewwb_0GXvtzqU19KYCSq8oygZ_oUdXiD5LzzPr6pZ2QLmjRSZJIbWW1jjYcaaNbYndOaXkV5CCKnMJzp6OlTTz/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In
the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and pumps it
into the indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the process is reversed,
and the heat pump moves heat from the indoor air into the heat exchanger. The
heat removed from the indoor air during the summer can also be used to heat
water, providing a free source of hot water. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Geothermal heat
pumps offer unmatched benefits over traditional heating and cooling systems,
including: </div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Lower operating costs: A geothermal system can cut
utility bills by 30 to 50 percent compared to conventional heating and
cooling systems. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Environmental impact: Ground-source heat is naturally
renewable and non-polluting.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Lower maintenance costs: All equipment is protected
indoors or underground. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Life span: A geothermal system can have a life
expectancy of up to 30 years; ground loops are often warranted for up to
50 years. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Single system: Geothermal equipment provides both
heating and cooling in one system. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Indoor comfort: Geothermal systems eliminate the
drafts common with conventional forced-air systems.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Design flexibility: Geothermal systems can be easily
and inexpensively subdivided or expanded to fit building remodeling or
additions. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Energy efficiency: A geothermal heat pump can move
more than three units of heat energy for every one unit of electrical
energy used to power the system. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Safety: No dangers of gas leaks or carbon monoxide
poisoning.</li>
</ul>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> 3.
DIRECT USE APPLICATIONS</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Geothermal
reservoirs within the low to moderate temperature range can provide heat
for residential, industrial, and commercial use. The Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy (EERE) division of the U.S. Department of Energy reports
that savings can be as much as 80% over the use of fossil fuels. This
form of energy is also very clean, with far fewer air pollutants emitted when
compared to fossil fuels. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
The
employment of direct use geothermal energy requires that a certain
infrastructure be established for proper handling of this resource.
First, a production facility, usually a well, will bring the hot water to the
ground surface. Second, a mechanical system to deliver the heat to a
space or process must be developed. This means the piping, heat
exchanger, and control infrastructure for heat extraction. Third, there must be
a disposal system, such as an injection well or storage pond, that can receive
the cooled geothermal fluid.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Direct
use applications for geothermally heated waters is quite extensive. A
number of operations use low-temperature geothermal resources for district and
space heating, greenhouses, and aquaculture facilities. District systems
distribute naturally heated water from one or more geothermal wells through a
series of pipes to several houses and buildings, or blocks of buildings.
Space heating uses one well per structure. In both of these systems, the
geothermal heat is replacing fossil fuel burning as the heat source for the
traditional heating system. District heating systems can save consumers
30% to 50% of the cost of natural gas heating. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Numerous other
industrial and commercial uses are also possible. Industrial applications
can include food dehydration, cement and aggregate drying, concrete block
curing, milk pasteurizing, spas, and others </div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">ADVANTAGES OF USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY</b></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Clean. </b></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
Geothermal
power plants, like wind and solar power plants, do not have to burn fuels to
manufacture steam to turn the turbines. Generating electricity with geothermal
energy helps to conserve nonrenewable fossil fuels, and by decreasing the use
of these fuels, we reduce emissions that harm our atmosphere. There is no smoky
air around geothermal power plants -- in fact some are built in the middle of
farm crops and forests, and share land with cattle and local wildlife. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Easy on the
land.</b></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
The land area required for geothermal power
plants is smaller per megawatt than for almost every other type of power plant.
Geothermal installations don't require damming of rivers or harvesting of
forests -- and there are no mine shafts, tunnels, open pits, waste heaps or oil
spills. </div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Reliable.</b></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
Geothermal
power plants are designed to run 24 hours a day, all year. A geothermal power
plant sits right on top of its fuel source. It is resistant to interruptions of
power generation due to weather, natural disasters or political rifts that can
interrupt transportation of fuels. </div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Flexible.</b></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
Geothermal
power plants can have modular designs, with additional units installed in
increments when needed to fit growing demand for electricity.</div>
<ul style="margin-top: 0in;" type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Keeps Dollars
at Home</b></li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: justify;">
Money
does not have to be exported to import fuel for geothermal power plants.
Geothermal "fuel'" - like the sun and the wind - is always where the
power plant is; economic benefits remain in the region and there are no fuel
price shocks. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">FUTURE PROSPECTS IN INDIA.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
In
a global tectonic context, India is not particularly well placed as far as
geothermal energy is concerned. However, due to anomalous nature of some
segments of its lithosphere, it does contain a number of geothermal areas with
temperature in the range of 30 degrees celsius to 100 degrees celsius. Most of
them are intermediate temperature type and occur along certain tectonic
boundaries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
The
most promising geothermal areas include-(I) Puga-Chhumathang, Manikaran and
Tapoban in New Himalayas, (2) Konkan, Cambay and Bombay Offshore, (3) Taptapani
(Orissa), (4) Gondwanic grabens, and (5) Volcanic areas of Andaman-Nocobar
chain.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8Zb1f5TlYwLEVup5-VuBEe-zk-VLycwrOIeupoYH1vYXfC9kZH1Oskjq4PY7V0gJQ1c1nBzvwT2pJaUHud4h2E7T2eaZZV_0WQ_2yfR4jPM128xd21OfNrm2SdenIJVxpO4y_rUuIMgIA/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="264" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8Zb1f5TlYwLEVup5-VuBEe-zk-VLycwrOIeupoYH1vYXfC9kZH1Oskjq4PY7V0gJQ1c1nBzvwT2pJaUHud4h2E7T2eaZZV_0WQ_2yfR4jPM128xd21OfNrm2SdenIJVxpO4y_rUuIMgIA/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Power deficient
India is planning to use geothermal energy to produce 10,600 megawatts of
power, five times more than the combined output from all non-conventional
energy sources.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
The first such
plant is being set up in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir. Officials say
this renewable energy would come at a throwaway cost, less than one third of
hydropower. China on the other side of the border has already set up a
geo-thermal plant.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
Officials associated with the
project say that they have already completed preliminary investigations in
Ladakh. A five-member team led by Dr D.Chandrasekharam, head of the Earth
Sciences Department at the Indian Institute of Technology, that visited the
region recently is submitting a blue print to the government. According to
Chandrasekharam, India has the capacity to produce 10,600 megawatts of geo-thermal
power.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">CONCLUSION:</b></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Today is the era of non-conventional sources of
energy. Till now India has tapped the potential of wind, tidal, solar and
nuclear energy only. But geothermal technology is still to appear in India. The
Indian government has taken few modest steps in this regard. Considering the
potential applications of geothermal energy and the present Indian power
scenario, it is high time that India exploits this source of energy to the
fullest and makes a mark in the field of power production.</span></div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8890010187010713283.post-40390630654060206772011-09-23T15:08:00.000+05:302011-10-03T12:46:20.779+05:30Carbon fiber reinforced plastic Composites<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvqKo450BYkLyHNtMm9cW4OTnR2V4bJ0jb2Tm7HGMvw702rhsdRCVSutNqM6SvPdaRGq_aa_XhQI9A9xueOOxWyOg6MLKD7IQxn_JLzcvoRKmnCgW4XjyM02eaGszMoI04g5eid9noUqHH/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvqKo450BYkLyHNtMm9cW4OTnR2V4bJ0jb2Tm7HGMvw702rhsdRCVSutNqM6SvPdaRGq_aa_XhQI9A9xueOOxWyOg6MLKD7IQxn_JLzcvoRKmnCgW4XjyM02eaGszMoI04g5eid9noUqHH/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">ABSTRACT</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black;">Composites
are the 21<sup>st</sup> century material to meet the stringent demands of light
weight, high strength, corrosion resistance & near-net shapes. Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Plastic Composite is new class of materials has recently emerged as
a leading contender for numerous application in automobile, aerospace,
electronic and wear industries.</span><span style="color: #000066;"> </span><span style="color: black;">in brake disks of aircraft or Formula 1 / Indy race cars.
These type of composite can operate</span><span style="color: #000066;"> </span><span style="color: black;">at temperatures up to approx. 900ºC or higher. Useful
properties of</span><span lang="EN-GB"> carbon
fibres are their durability, resistance to fatigue and that they are chemically
inert and still exhibit high strength at
high temperatures.</span><span style="color: black;">Although they were know to
mankind since prehistoric times, the concept and technology have undergone a
sea change with better understanding of the basics like the bonding mechanism
between the matrix and fiber. Technologically composites are artificially
produced multiphase materials having desirable combination of best properties
of the constituent phases. Since carbon is a high performance fiber material
that is most commonly used reinforcement in advanced Polymer- matrix composites
known as CFRP. </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span lang="EN-GB"></span></u></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">Keywords: -
</span></b><span style="color: black; line-height: 150%;">CFRP,
Carbon fiber, PMC.</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">INTRODUCTION</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></b><span style="color: black;"> Many of
our modern technologies require material with unusual combination of properties
that can not be met by the conventional metal alloys, ceramics & polymeric
materials. Composites are one of the most widely used material because of their
adaptability to different situations & the relative ease of combination
with other material to serve specific purposes & exhibit desire properties.
“A composite material is a combination of two or more chemically distinct &
insoluble phases.” Its properties & structural performance are superior to
those of the constituents acting independently. The plastic posses mechanical
properties that are generally inferior to those of metal & alloys-in
particular low strength, stiffness & creep resistance. These properties can
be improved by imbedding reinforcement of various types (such as glass or
graphite fibers) to produce reinforced plastic. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">Many composite materials are composed of just two phases ;
one is termed the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">matrix, </b>which is
continuous & surrounds the other phase often called dispersed phase another
is discontinuous phase & termed as<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">
fiber</b>. The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the
constituent phase, their relative amounts, & the geometry of fibers.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">FIBERS:-</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">In a
continuous fiber reinforced composite, the fibers provide virtually all of the
load carrying characteristics of the composites, the most important of which
are strength and stiffness. The multiple fibers in a composite make it a very
redundant material because the failure of even several fibers results in the
redistribution of load on to other fibers rather than a catastrophic failure of
the part.</span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">On the basis of diameter
& character, fibers are grouped into three different classifications; <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">whiskers, fibers,</b> & <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">wires.</b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNvrqkqryMQAV1tYDu0ufSI8rfgUGUOhhk3KDNSaQn_WwH69C10UTZHnlSnF4KRcKuFVMlSNBXjGF8-G0mQ9-Cf7MqxOBghpzh59gCaUGyyprCEEadnkzRsKmR0-jmn2SC0PXe0LHO0Kvi/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNvrqkqryMQAV1tYDu0ufSI8rfgUGUOhhk3KDNSaQn_WwH69C10UTZHnlSnF4KRcKuFVMlSNBXjGF8-G0mQ9-Cf7MqxOBghpzh59gCaUGyyprCEEadnkzRsKmR0-jmn2SC0PXe0LHO0Kvi/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black;"></span></b><span style="color: black;">Fig. </span><span style="color: black;">Common forms of fiber reinforcement<b></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b><span style="color: black;">Matrices:-</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">The
purpose of the matrix is to bind the reinforcements together by virtue of its
cohesive and adhesive characteristics, to transfer load to and between
reinforcements, and to protect the reinforcements from environments and
handling. The matrix also provides a solid form to the composite, which aids
handling during manufacture and is typically required in a finished part. This
is particularly necessary in discontinuously reinforced composites, because the
reinforcements are not of sufficient length to provide a handle able form.
Because the reinforcements are typically stronger and stiffer, the matrix is
often the “weak link” in the composite, from a structural perspective. As a
continuous phase, the matrix therefore controls the transverse properties,
interlaminar strength, and elevated-temperature strength of the composite.
However, the matrix allows the strength of the reinforcements to be used to
their full potential by providing effective load transfer from external forces
to the reinforcement.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuoDkHNI9JlI7vqYf-LmC8dTV6qRj2uThrrdjz3XbHvyFrbthM8C4DdIfLA5y6o4k5FkaxMChPJumAut72J3tyXnQdC46-aAmoELwu7l4PtvdxZjsciPhyh7lu5Wo__QX4cBQ3YKfxULiH/s1600/Untitled1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="356" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjuoDkHNI9JlI7vqYf-LmC8dTV6qRj2uThrrdjz3XbHvyFrbthM8C4DdIfLA5y6o4k5FkaxMChPJumAut72J3tyXnQdC46-aAmoELwu7l4PtvdxZjsciPhyh7lu5Wo__QX4cBQ3YKfxULiH/s640/Untitled1.png" width="640" /></a><span style="color: black;"> Fig:
Types of matrices</span><br />
<span style="color: black;"> </span>
<br />
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<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">CARBON FIBER RAINFORCED PLASTIC (CFRP)</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black;">In this type of composite carbon/graphite fiber
is embedded in polymer matrix. Carbon is a high performance fiber material that
is most common in used reinforcement in advanced (i.e. non-fiber glass)
polymer- matrix composites. The reason for this is as follows:</span></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Carbon fibers have the
highest specific modulus & specific strength of all reinforcing fiber
materials.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">They retain their high
tensile modulus & high strength at elevated temperatures: high temp.
Oxidation however may be a problem.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">At room temp. Carbon fibers
are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of solvents, acids, bases.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">These fibers exhibit a diversity
of physical & mechanical characteristics, allowing composites in
corporating these fibers to have specific engineered properties.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Fiber & composite
manufacturing processes have been developed that are relatively
inexpensive & cost effective.</li>
</ol>
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<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">CARBON FIBERS</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 150%;">Classification of Carbon Fibers:-</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Carbon fibers are classified by the tensile modulus of the fiber.
Tensile modulus is a measure of how much pulling force a certain diameter fiber
can exert without breaking. Carbon fibers classified as "low modulus"
have a tensile modulus below 240 million kPa. Other classifications, in
ascending order of tensile modulus, include "standard modulus,"
"intermediate modulus," "high modulus," and "ultrahigh
modulus." Ultrahigh modulus carbon fibers have a tensile modulus of 500
million-1.0 billion kPa. As a comparison, steel has a tensile modulus of about
200 million kPa. Thus, the strongest carbon fiber is about five times stronger
than steel. The term graphite fiber
refers to certain ultrahigh modulus fibers made from petroleum pitch. These
fibers have an internal structure that closely approximates the
three-dimensional crystal alignment that is characteristic of a pure form of</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">carbon known as graphite.</span></div>
<h2 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 150%;">Raw Materials</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The raw material used to make carbon fiber is called the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">precursor.</b> About 90% of the carbon
fibers produced are made from polyacrylonitrile. The remaining 10% are made
from rayon or petroleum pitch. All of these materials are organic polymers,
characterized by long strings of molecules bound together by carbon atoms. The
exact composition of each precursor varies from one company to another and is
generally considered a trade secret. During the manufacturing process, a
variety of gases and liquids are used. Some of these materials are designed to
react with the fiber to achieve a specific effect. Other materials are designed
not to react or to prevent certain reactions with the fiber. As with the
precursors, the exact compositions of many of these process materials are
considered trade secrets.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">MANUFACTURING
PROCESS</span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> The manufacturing process for
producing carbon fibers involved highly controlled steps of heat treatment and
tension to form the appropriately ordered carbon structure. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Rayon,</b> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Pitch</b> has been largely supplanted as a precursor by <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Polyacrylonitrile (PAN).</b>
Polyacrylonitrile<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>precursors produce
much more economical fibers because the carbon yield is higher and because
PAN-based fibers do not intrinsically require a final high-temperature
“graphitization” step. Polyacrylonitrile-based fibers having intermediate-
modulus values of about 240 to 310 GPa (35 to 45 _ 106 psi), combined with
strengths ranging from 3515 to 6380 MPa (510 to 925 ksi), are now commercially
available. Because carbon fibers display linear stress-strain behavior to failure,
the increase in strength also means an increase in the elongation-to-failure.
The commercial fibers thus display elongations of up to 2.2%, which means that
they exceed the strain capabilities of conventional organic matrices. The
diameter of carbon fibers typically ranges from 8 to 10 lm (0.3 to 0.4 mils).</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The process for making carbon
fibers is part chemical and part mechanical Plastics are drown into long
strands or fibers and then heated to a very high temperature without allowing
it to come in contact with oxygen. Without oxygen, the fiber cannot burn.
Instead, the high temperature causes the atoms in the fiber to vibrate
violently until most of the non-carbon atoms are expelled. This process is
called <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">carbonization</b> and leaves a
fiber composed of long, tightly.</span></div>
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvJOgy6gqJFTqgSny4VNia5NXP_bD7ZoC5-F-V9PoZrqJ2VkFWmuxnCW43ShcZg4EIHiEN7RXXR0BpYNXqknv6GlXSCmc16e8tjXMG74J5x4Tn3PC3Sx_H7bcpe3UU1RxTjltx1sZHVOjr/s1600/Untitled1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvJOgy6gqJFTqgSny4VNia5NXP_bD7ZoC5-F-V9PoZrqJ2VkFWmuxnCW43ShcZg4EIHiEN7RXXR0BpYNXqknv6GlXSCmc16e8tjXMG74J5x4Tn3PC3Sx_H7bcpe3UU1RxTjltx1sZHVOjr/s320/Untitled1.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="color: black;"><br /></span><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">Fig:
Manufacturing of carbon fibers.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">PYROLYSIS PROCESS</span></b><span style="color: black;">:-</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxEm4NI2eSxc2EFNkCUzlK4nGVFCKRmhNUIY_vtx3-0-bxZvLgaxb3scHJlilpdblK4WUC_2Ht_qxs21ZqgQeh9x0B4Iuv2DdgkZhEd4ct_MRdSXInQTcWOFYkEOpyz6aNzDXY76Xlqrdj/s1600/Untitled1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgxEm4NI2eSxc2EFNkCUzlK4nGVFCKRmhNUIY_vtx3-0-bxZvLgaxb3scHJlilpdblK4WUC_2Ht_qxs21ZqgQeh9x0B4Iuv2DdgkZhEd4ct_MRdSXInQTcWOFYkEOpyz6aNzDXY76Xlqrdj/s320/Untitled1.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;"><br /></span></b><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">Fig<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">:</b>Pyrolysis
processes for PAN precursors</span><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">Pyrolysis
is the processes of inducing chemical changes by heat-for a instance, by
burning a length of yarn & causing the material to carbonize & become
black in color. The temperature of carbonizing range up to about 1500°C; for
graphitizing to 3000°C, Here is a
typical sequence of operations used to form carbon fibers from polyacrylonitrile.</span></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Spinning:-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></h3>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> Acrylonitrile
plastic powder is mixed with another plastic, like methyl acrylate or
methyl methacrylate, and is reacted with a catalyst in a conventional
suspension or solution polymerization process to form a polyacrylonitrile
plastic. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> The plastic is
then spun into fibers using one of several different methods. In some
methods, the plastic is mixed with certain chemicals and pumped through
tiny jets into a chemical bath or quench chamber where the plastic
coagulates and solidifies into fibers. This is similar to the process used
to form polycyclic textile fibers. In other methods, the plastic mixture
is heated and pumped through tiny jets into a chamber where the solvents
evaporate, leaving a solid fiber. The spinning step is important because
the internal atomic structure of the fiber is formed during this process. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> The fibers are
then washed and stretched to the desired fiber diameter. The stretching
helps align the molecules within the fiber and provide the basis for the
formation of the tightly bonded carbon crystals after carbonization. </li>
</ol>
<h3 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Stabilizing:-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></h3>
<ol start="4" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> Before the
fibers are carbonized, they need to be chemically altered to convert their
linear atomic bonding to a more thermally stable ladder bonding. This is
accomplished by heating the fibers in air to about 390-590° F (200-300° C)
for 30-120 minutes. This causes the fibers to pick up oxygen molecules
from the air and rearrange their atomic bonding pattern. The stabilizing
chemical reactions are complex and involve several steps, some of which
occur simultaneously. They also generate their own heat, which must be
controlled to avoid overheating the fibers. Commercially, the
stabilization process uses a variety of equipment and techniques. In some
processes, the fibers are drawn through a series of heated chambers. In
others, the fibers pass over hot rollers and through beds of loose
materials held in suspension by a flow of hot air. Some processes use
heated air mixed with certain gases that chemically accelerate the
stabilization.</li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<h3 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Carbonizing:-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></h3>
<ol start="5" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> Once the
fibers are stabilized, they are heated to a temperature of about
1,830-5,500° F (1,000-3,000° C) for several minutes in a furnace filled
with a gas mixture that does not contain oxygen. The lack of oxygen
prevents the fibers from burning in the very high temperatures. The gas
pressure inside the furnace is kept higher than the outside air pressure
and the points where the fibers enter and exit the furnace are sealed to
keep oxygen from entering. As the fibers are heated, they begin to lose
their non-carbon atoms, plus a few carbon atoms, in the form of various
gases including water vapor, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, nitrogen, and others. As the non-carbon atoms are expelled, the
remaining carbon atoms form tightly bonded carbon crystals that are
aligned more or less parallel to the long axis of the fiber. In some
processes, two furnaces operating at two different temperatures are used
to better control the rate de heating during carbonization. </li>
</ol>
<h3 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Treating the surface:-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></h3>
<ol start="6" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> After
carbonizing, the fibers have a surface that does not bond well with the
epoxies and other materials used in composite materials. To give the
fibers better bonding properties, their surface is slightly oxidized. The
addition of oxygen atoms to the surface provides better chemical bonding
properties and also etches and roughens the surface for better mechanical
bonding properties. Oxidation can be achieved by immersing the fibers in
various gases such as air, carbon dioxide, or ozone; or in various liquids
such as sodium hypochlorite or nitric acid. The fibers can also be coated
electrolytically by making the fibers the positive terminal in a bath
filled with various electrically conductive materials. The surface
treatment process must be carefully controlled to avoid forming tiny
surface defects, such as pits, which could cause fiber failure. </li>
</ol>
<h3 style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Sizing:-</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></h3>
<ol start="7" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> After the
surface treatment, the fibers are coated to protect them from damage
during winding or weaving. This process is called sizing. Coating
materials are chosen to be compatible with the adhesive used to form
composite materials. Typical coating materials include epoxy, polyester,
nylon, urethane, and others. </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;"> The coated
fibers are wound onto cylinders called bobbins. The bobbins are loaded
into a spinning machine and the fibers are twisted into yarns of various
sizes. </li>
</ol>
<div align="center" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span id="goog_1800758291"></span><span id="goog_1800758292"></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black;">Fig: sizing</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black;">. <b>Capabilities:-</b></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Excellent air flow uniformity </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Easy internal access to facilitate maintenance </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Electric or gas fired </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Optimal temperature uniformity </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Operator isolation from effluent </li>
</ul>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: black;">Features</span></b><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<ul type="disc">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Multiple temperature control zones </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Proven alternating cross flow design </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Adjustable louvers and diffuser plates for precise
temperature adjustment </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Excellent float end seals for positive sealing,
minimized infiltration of ambient atmosphere and improved temperature
uniformity </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Aluminized steel construction </li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo4; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify;">Plug fans to facilitate maintenance.</li>
</ul>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">TYPICAL
PROPERTIES OF REINFORCING FIBER</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black;">1. The advantages of carbon fibre
products over different woods and metals come to prominence when a rigid, strong but also
lightweight material is needed</span><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black;">2. </span><span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black;">Further useful properties of carbon fibres are their
durability, resistance to fatigue and
that they are chemically inert and still exhibit high strength at high
temperatures.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; text-align: justify;">
<span lang="EN-GB" style="color: black;">3. It is
often preferred to other fibre composites due to the tensile strength and
modulus of the high quality fibres which perform better than fibreglass or
Kevlar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: medium none; width: 584px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 18.55pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" width="117"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">TYPE</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">TENSILE STRENGTH (MPa</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;">)</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">ELASTIC MODULUS (GPa</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;">)</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">DENSITY</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> ( kg /
m<sup>3 </sup>)</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"></span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-left: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 18.55pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">RELATIVE COST</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> Boron</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">3500</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">380</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">2600</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Highest</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 2;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Carbon</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 3;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> High strength</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">3000</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 88.5pt;" valign="top" width="118"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 275</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 1900</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 86.85pt;" valign="top" width="116"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> Low</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 4;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> High modulus</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">2000</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 415</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 1900</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> Low</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 5;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Glass</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 6;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">E type</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 3500</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">73</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 2480</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> Lowest</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 7;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> S
type</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 4600</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 85</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;"> 2540</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> Lowest</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 8;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Kevlar</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 9;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">29</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 2800</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 62</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">1440</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> High</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 11.95pt; mso-yfti-irow: 10; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 49</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 2800</span></div>
</td>
<td style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> 117</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.65pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt;"> </span><span style="color: black;">1440</span></div>
</td>
<td colspan="2" style="border-bottom: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-left: none; border-right: solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-top: none; height: 11.95pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-left-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 87.7pt;" valign="top" width="117"><div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> High</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr height="0">
<td style="border: none;" width="117"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="117"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="117"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="1"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="116"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="1"><br /></td>
<td style="border: none;" width="116"><br /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITES</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black;"> It consists
of a polymer resin as the matrix, with the fiber as the reinforcement medium.
Polymer makes ideal matrix materials as they can be processed easily possess
lightweight, inlight of their room temperature properties, & cost. The
various types of PMCs are classified according to reinforcement type (i.e.
glass, carbon, aramid & boron)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;">The two main kinds of
polymers are Thermosets & Thermoplastics.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Thermosets:-</span></b><span style="color: black;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">Thermosets
have qualities such as a well bonded three dimensional molecular structure. The
most common resins of these types are epoxies, phenolics, polyimides &
cyanate esters. The epoxies are more expensive & in addition to commercial
application are also utilized extensively in PMCs for aerospace application.
For high temperature applications polyimide resins are employed. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Thermoplastics:-</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">Thermoplastics
have one or two dimensional molecular structure & they tend to soften at an
elevated temperature & show exaggerated melting point. High temperature
thermoplastic resins offer the potential to be used in future aerospace
application; such material include Polyetheretherketone (PEEK), Polyphenylene
sulfide (PPS) & Polyethereimide (PEI).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">APPLICATIONS</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="1" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span style="font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%;">.</span><span lang="EN-GB"> Most sports now use carbon
fibres in their equipment whether it is to reinforce the traditional
materials or create new ones. Golf clubs, tennis rackets and bicycles all
use the strength and durability of modern composites to enhance the
quality of the sport. Formula One and other motor sports use carbon fibre
composites in order to protect the driver in the event of a crash. </span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<ol start="2" style="margin-top: 0in;" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">Reinforced plastic are used for automobile parts. The
fatigue properties of the materials & low weight, ability to sustain
strains from the engine heat & low frequency road vibrations are
features that favors composites in truck & other vehicles.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">Carbon/graphite is also used as a moderator in both
reactor & non-reactor system & exhibit good moderating
characteristics. They are also used in space application due to thermal
conductivity & strength.</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">Fiber epoxy composites have been used in aircraft
engine to enhance the performance of the system</li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; line-height: 150%; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list .5in;"><span lang="EN-GB">The
aerospace and automotive industry also use the excellent properties to
their advantage and are always researching and developing further
improvements in the quality of the fibres.</span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCrYtwSTnJUL1zOdINxWqwHMYMsLUeOZR_DmGPtj81C6OcNV9goeBILUhOB7ayqKQ8dxpoZ4T39A3tYiFMWEHfQtCkn0ya6r-wa_zbC0JbTpJP2nf6p9kxl-jb3iEYMkP4QHMXvYMZgWMu/s1600/Untitled.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgCrYtwSTnJUL1zOdINxWqwHMYMsLUeOZR_DmGPtj81C6OcNV9goeBILUhOB7ayqKQ8dxpoZ4T39A3tYiFMWEHfQtCkn0ya6r-wa_zbC0JbTpJP2nf6p9kxl-jb3iEYMkP4QHMXvYMZgWMu/s320/Untitled.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span><span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .25in;">
<span style="color: black;">Fig: The Boeing 7E7</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 150%;">CONCLUSION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> There are many fibers which embedded in PMCs & to
increase the strength & desired properties of material. Out of which carbon
& boron fibers are mostly used but economical point of view carbon has low
cost as compared to boron. Polymer matrix are used in large quantities, in
light of there room temperature properties, ease of fabrication & cost.
Carbon fibers are produced by many processes by using Reyon, Pitch or PAN as a
precursor. Pyrolysis of PAN produces fibers of high strength & stiffness.
As CFRP is light in weight they are used in aerospace & space application</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"> </span></div>
</div>
Natish Shahhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01361900272168693412noreply@blogger.com6